Nathan Wiebe^14,15,16, Alexander Schuckert^3,17,‡, and Steven M. Girvin^6,7,§

• ¹Department of Physics, Co-Design Center for Quantum Advantage, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
• ²Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
• ³Joint Quantum Institute and Joint Center for Quantum Information and Computer Science, University of Maryland and NIST, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
• ⁴Department of Physics, King’s College London, Strand, London, WC2R 2LS, United Kingdom
• ⁵Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, USA
• ⁶Yale Quantum Institute, PO Box 208 334, 17 Hillhouse Avenue, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8263, USA
• ⁷Departments of Applied Physics and Physics, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
• ⁸Department of Computer Science, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, USA
• ⁹Infleqtion, Chicago, Illinois 60604, USA
• ¹⁰Center for Theoretical Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
• ¹¹ The NSF AI Institute for Artificial Intelligence and Fundamental Interactions
• ¹²CQTA, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Platanenallee 6, 15738 Zeuthen, Germany
• ¹³Transdisciplinary Research Area “Building Blocks of Matter and Fundamental Interactions” (TRA Matter) and Helmholtz Institute for Radiation and Nuclear Physics (HISKP), University of Bonn, Nussallee 14-16, 53115 Bonn, Germany
• ¹⁴Department of Computer Science, University of Toronto, Canada
• ¹⁵Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington, USA
• ¹⁶Canadian Institute for Advanced Studies, Toronto, Canada
• ¹⁷DIENS, École Normale Supérieure, PSL University, CNRS, INRIA, 45 rue d’Ulm, Paris 75005, France

• ^*Contact author: eleanor.crane@kcl.ac.uk
• ^†Present address: Google Quantum AI, Santa Barbara, California, USA.
• ^‡Contact author: alexander.schuckert@ens.fr
• ^§Contact author: steven.girvin@yale.edu