The hadronic final state in electron-proton collisions at HERA has provided a rich testing ground for development of the theory of the strong force, QCD. In this review, over 200 publications from the H1 and ZEUS Collaborations are summarized. Short distance physics, the measurement of processes at high-energy scales, has provided rigorous tests of perturbative QCD and constrained the structure of the proton as well as allowing precise determinations of the strong coupling constant to be made. Nonperturbative or low-energy processes have also been investigated and results on hadronization interpreted together with those from other experiments. Searches for exotic QCD objects, such as pentaquarks, glueballs, and instantons, have been performed. The subject of diffraction has been reinvigorated through its precise measurement, such that it can now be described by perturbative QCD. After discussion of HERA, the H1 and ZEUS detectors, and the techniques used to reconstruct differing hadronic final states, the above subject areas are elaborated on. The major achievements are then condensed further in a final section summarizing what has been learned.

This is an overview of theoretical approaches to semiflexible polymers and their networks. Such semiflexible polymers have large bending rigidities that can compete with the entropic tendency of a chain to crumple up into a random coil. Many studies on semiflexible polymers and their assemblies have been motivated by their importance in biology. Indeed, cross-linked networks of semiflexible polymers form a major structural component of tissue and living cells. Reconstituted networks of such biopolymers have emerged as a new class of biological soft matter systems with remarkable material properties, which have spurred many of the theoretical developments discussed here. Starting from the mechanics and dynamics of individual semiflexible polymers, the physics of semiflexible bundles, entangled solutions, and disordered cross-linked networks are reviewed. Finally, recent developments on marginally stable fibrous networks, which exhibit critical behavior similar to other marginal systems such as jammed soft matter, are discussed.

Spectroscopic studies of electronic phenomena in graphene are reviewed. A variety of methods and techniques are surveyed, from quasiparticle spectroscopies (tunneling, photoemission) to methods probing density and current response (infrared optics, Raman) to scanning probe nanoscopy and ultrafast pump-probe experiments. Vast complimentary information derived from these investigations is shown to highlight unusual properties of Dirac quasiparticles and many-body interaction effects in the physics of graphene.

Biological locomotion, movement within environments through self-deformation, encompasses a range of time and length scales in an organism. These include the electrophysiology of the nervous system, the dynamics of muscle activation, the mechanics of the skeletal system, and the interaction mechanics of such structures within natural environments like water, air, sand, and mud. Unlike the many studies of cellular and molecular scale biophysical processes, movement of entire organisms (like flies, lizards, and snakes) is less explored. Further, while movement in fluids like air and water is also well studied, little is known in detail of the mechanics that organisms use to move on and within flowable terrestrial materials such as granular media, ensembles of small particles that collectively display solid, fluid, and gaslike behaviors. This Colloquium reviews recent progress to understand principles of biomechanics and granular physics responsible for locomotion of the sandfish, a small desert-dwelling lizard that “swims” within sand using undulation of its body. Kinematic and muscle activity measurements of sand swimming using high speed x-ray imaging and electromyography are discussed. This locomotion problem poses an interesting challenge: namely, that equations that govern the interaction of the lizard with its environment do not yet exist. Therefore, complementary modeling approaches are also described: resistive force theory for granular media, multiparticle simulation modeling, and robotic physical modeling. The models reproduce biomechanical and neuromechanical aspects of sand swimming and give insight into how effective locomotion arises from the coupling of the body movement and flow of the granular medium. The argument is given that biophysical study of movement provides exciting opportunities to investigate emergent aspects of living systems that might not depend sensitively on biological details.

Accelerator-based light sources such as storage rings and free-electron lasers use relativistic electron beams to produce intense radiation over a wide spectral range for fundamental research in physics, chemistry, materials science, biology, and medicine. More than a dozen such sources operate worldwide, and new sources are being built to deliver radiation that meets with the ever-increasing sophistication and depth of new research. Even so, conventional accelerator techniques often cannot keep pace with new demands and, thus, new approaches continue to emerge. In this article, a variety of recently developed and promising techniques that rely on lasers to manipulate and rearrange the electron distribution in order to tailor the properties of the radiation are reviewed. Basic theories of electron-laser interactions, techniques to create microstructures and nanostructures in electron beams, and techniques to produce radiation with customizable waveforms are reviewed. An overview of laser-based techniques for the generation of fully coherent x rays, mode-locked x-ray pulse trains, light with orbital angular momentum, and attosecond or even zeptosecond long coherent pulses in free-electron lasers is presented. Several methods to generate femtosecond pulses in storage rings are also discussed. Additionally, various schemes designed to enhance the performance of light sources through precision beam preparation including beam conditioning, laser heating, emittance exchange, and various laser-based diagnostics are described. Together these techniques represent a new emerging concept of “beam by design” in modern accelerators, which is the primary focus of this article.

Over the past two decades, the research of (Ga,Mn)As has led to a deeper understanding of relativistic spin-dependent phenomena in magnetic systems. It has also led to discoveries of new effects and demonstrations of unprecedented functionalities of experimental spintronic devices with general applicability to a wide range of materials. This is a review of the basic material properties that make (Ga,Mn)As a favorable test-bed system for spintronics research and a discussion of contributions of (Ga,Mn)As studies in the general context of the spin-dependent phenomena and device concepts. Special focus is on the spin-orbit coupling induced effects and the reviewed topics include the interaction of spin with electrical current, light, and heat.

The study of nonequilibrium phenomena in correlated lattice systems has developed into one of the most active and exciting branches of condensed matter physics. This research field provides rich new insights that could not be obtained from the study of equilibrium situations, and the theoretical understanding of the physics often requires the development of new concepts and methods. On the experimental side, ultrafast pump-probe spectroscopies enable studies of excitation and relaxation phenomena in correlated electron systems, while ultracold atoms in optical lattices provide a new way to control and measure the time evolution of interacting lattice systems with a vastly different characteristic time scale compared to electron systems. A theoretical description of these phenomena is challenging because, first, the quantum-mechanical time evolution of many-body systems out of equilibrium must be computed and second, strong-correlation effects which can be of a nonperturbative nature must be addressed. This review discusses the nonequilibrium extension of the dynamical mean field theory (DMFT), which treats quantum fluctuations in the time domain and works directly in the thermodynamic limit. The method reduces the complexity of the calculation via a mapping to a self-consistent impurity problem, which becomes exact in infinite dimensions. Particular emphasis is placed on a detailed derivation of the formalism, and on a discussion of numerical techniques, which enable solutions of the effective nonequilibrium DMFT impurity problem. Insights gained into the properties of the infinite-dimensional Hubbard model under strong nonequilibrium conditions are summarized. These examples illustrate the current ability of the theoretical framework to reproduce and understand fundamental nonequilibrium phenomena, such as the dielectric breakdown of Mott insulators, photodoping, and collapse-and-revival oscillations in quenched systems. Furthermore, remarkable novel phenomena have been predicted by the nonequilibrium DMFT simulations of correlated lattice systems, including dynamical phase transitions and field-induced repulsion-to-attraction conversions.

Type-I clathrate compounds have attracted a great deal of interest in connection with the search for efficient thermoelectric materials. These compounds constitute networked cages consisting of nanoscale tetrakaidecahedrons (14-hedrons) and dodecahedrons (12-hedrons), in which the group-1 or -2 elements in the periodic table are encaged as so-called “rattling” guest atoms. It is remarkable that, although these compounds have a crystalline cubic structure, they exhibit glasslike phonon thermal conductivity over the whole temperature range depending on the states of rattling guest atoms in the tetrakaidecahedron. In addition, these compounds show unusual glasslike specific heats and terahertz-frequency phonon dynamics, providing a remarkable broad peak almost identical to those observed in amorphous materials or structural glasses, the so-called boson peak. An efficient thermoelectric effect is realized in compounds showing these glasslike characteristics. In this decade, a number of experimental works dealing with type-I clathrate compounds have been published. These are diffraction, thermal, and spectroscopic experiments in addition to those based on heat and electronic transport. These form the raw materials for this review based on advances from this decade. The subject of this review involves interesting phenomena from the viewpoint not only of physics but also of the practical problem of elaborating efficient thermoelectric materials. This review presents a survey of a wide range of experimental investigations of type-I clathrate compounds, together with a review of theoretical interpretations of the peculiar thermal and dynamic properties observed in these materials.

This review compares the conceptualization and practice of early real-space renormalization group methods with the conceptualization of more recent real-space transformations based on tensor networks. For specificity, it focuses upon two basic methods: the “potential-moving” approach most used in the period 1975–1980 and the “rewiring method” as it has been developed in the last five years. The newer method, part of a development called the tensor renormalization group, was originally based on principles of quantum entanglement. It is specialized for computing approximations for tensor products constituting, for example, the free energy or the ground state energy of a large system. It can attack a wide variety of problems, including quantum problems, which would otherwise be intractable. The older method is formulated in terms of spin variables and permits a straightforward construction and analysis of fixed points in rather transparent terms. However, in the form described here it is unsystematic, offers no path for improvement, and of unknown reliability. The new method is formulated in terms of index variables which may be considered as linear combinations of the statistical variables. Free energies emerge naturally, but fixed points are more subtle. Further, physical interpretations of the index variables are often elusive due to a gauge symmetry which allows only selected combinations of tensor entries to have physical significance. In applications, both methods employ analyses with varying degrees of complexity. The complexity is parametrized by an integer called $\chi$ (or $D$ in the recent literature). Both methods are examined in action by using them to compute fixed points related to Ising models for small values of the complexity parameter. They behave quite differently. The old method gives a reasonably good picture of the fixed point, as measured, for example, by the accuracy of the measured critical indices. This happens at low values of $\chi$, but there is no known systematic way of getting more accurate results within the old method. In contrast, the rewiring method seems to work poorly in fixed point calculations at low $\chi$. This stands in contrast to the known excellent performance of these newer methods in calculations of free energy, but not fixed points, at large values of $\chi$. Speculations are offered with a particular eye to seeing the reasons why the results of these two approaches are so different.

Insects can hover, fly forward, climb, and descend with ease while demonstrating amazing stability, and they can also maneuver in impressive ways as no other organisms can. Is their flight inherently stable? If so, how can they maneuver so well? In recent years, significant progress has been made in revealing the dynamic flight stability and flight control mechanisms of insects and has partially answered these questions. Here the most recent advances in this active area are reviewed. The aim is to provide the background necessary to do research in the area and raise questions that need to be addressed in the future. This review begins with an overview of the flapping kinematics and aerodynamics of insect flight. It is followed by a summary of the governing equations of insect motion and the simplified theoretical models used for analysis of dynamic stability and control. Next, the stability properties of hovering flight and forward flight are scrutinized. Then the flight control properties are explored, dealing in turn with flight stabilization control, steady-state control for changing from hovering to forward flight and from one forward-flight speed to another, and control for maneuvers near hovering. Finally, remarks are given on the state of the art of this research field and speculation is made on its outlook in the near future.

This article reviews experimental and theoretical work on Bose-Einstein condensation in quantum magnets. These magnets are natural realizations of gases of interacting bosons whose relevant parameters such as dimensionality, lattice geometry, amount of disorder, nature of the interactions, and particle concentration can vary widely between different compounds. The particle concentration can be easily tuned by applying an external magnetic field which plays the role of a chemical potential. This rich spectrum of realizations offers a unique possibility for studying the different physical behaviors that emerge in interacting Bose gases from the interplay between their relevant parameters. The plethora of other bosonic phases that can emerge in quantum magnets, of which the Bose-Einstein condensate is the most basic ground state, is reviewed. The compounds discussed in this review have been intensively studied in the last two decades and have led to important contributions in the area of quantum magnetism. In spite of their apparent simplicity, these systems often exhibit surprising behaviors. The possibility of using controlled theoretical approaches has triggered the discovery of unusual effects induced by frustration, dimensionality, or disorder.

Inhomogeneous superconductors and inhomogeneous superfluids appear in a variety of contexts including quark matter at extreme densities, fermionic systems of cold atoms, type-II cuprates, and organic superconductors. In the present review the focus is on properties of quark matter at high baryonic density, which may exist in the interior of compact stars. The conditions realized in these stellar objects tend to disfavor standard symmetric BCS pairing and may favor an inhomogeneous color superconducting phase. The properties of inhomogeneous color superconductors are discussed in detail and in particular of crystalline color superconductors. The possible astrophysical signatures associated with the presence of crystalline color superconducting phases within the core of compact stars are also reviewed.

The experimental searches for the standard model Higgs boson are reviewed from the 2 TeV run of the Tevatron with $\simeq 10{\mathrm{fb}}^{-1}$ of recorded data, and from the 7 and 8 TeV runs of the LHC, with $\simeq 5$ and $\simeq 6{\mathrm{fb}}^{-1}$, respectively, i.e., until the July 2012 discovery of a new particle by the LHC experiments. The CMS and ATLAS Collaborations observe independently a new boson with mass $\simeq 125\mathrm{GeV}$, mainly through its bosonic decays in $\gamma \gamma$, $ZZ$, and $W^{+}{W}^{-}$, consistent with the standard model Higgs boson. The CDF and D0 experiments combine their results to see evidence of a similar particle produced in association with a vector boson and decaying fermionically in $b\overline{b}$.

Bell’s 1964 theorem, which states that the predictions of quantum theory cannot be accounted for by any local theory, represents one of the most profound developments in the foundations of physics. In the last two decades, Bell’s theorem has been a central theme of research from a variety of perspectives, mainly motivated by quantum information science, where the nonlocality of quantum theory underpins many of the advantages afforded by a quantum processing of information. The focus of this review is to a large extent oriented by these later developments. The main concepts and tools which have been developed to describe and study the nonlocality of quantum theory and which have raised this topic to the status of a full subfield of quantum information science are reviewed.

The efficiency of the future devices for quantum information processing is limited mostly by the finite decoherence rates of the individual qubits and quantum gates. Recently, substantial progress was achieved in enhancing the time within which a solid-state qubit demonstrates coherent dynamics. This progress is based mostly on a successful isolation of the qubits from external decoherence sources obtained by engineering. Under these conditions, the material-inherent sources of noise start to play a crucial role. In most cases, quantum devices are affected by noise decreasing with frequency $f$ approximately as $1/f$. According to the present point of view, such noise is due to material- and device-specific microscopic degrees of freedom interacting with quantum variables of the nanodevice. The simplest picture is that the environment that destroys the phase coherence of the device can be thought of as a system of two-state fluctuators, which experience random hops between their states. If the hopping times are distributed in an exponentially broad domain, the resulting fluctuations have a spectrum close to $1/f$ in a large frequency range. This paper reviews the current state of the theory of decoherence due to degrees of freedom producing $1/f$ noise. Basic mechanisms of such noises in various nanodevices are discussed and several models describing the interaction of the noise sources with quantum devices are reviewed. The main focus of the review is to analyze how the $1/f$ noise destroys their coherent operation. The start is from individual qubits concentrating mostly on the devices based on superconductor circuits and then some special issues related to more complicated architectures are discussed. Finally, several strategies for minimizing the noise-induced decoherence are considered.

In this review the main advances in heavy-ion fusion research that have taken place over the last decade are addressed. During this period, experimental studies have been extended to deep sub-barrier energies to reveal the unexpected phenomenon of fusion hindrance. The coupled-channels descriptions have been refined to include the effects of nucleon transfer and to account for the fusion hindrance in terms of the ion-ion potential in the strongly overlapping region. Substantial progress has been made in time-dependent Hartree-Fock theory to the point that this approach now can make parameter-free predictions of heavy-ion fusion excitation functions. As several heavy-ion fusion reactions are of crucial importance in late-stage giant-star evolution, these reactions continue to be studied with better experimental and theoretical tools in order to provide improved input to astrophysical models. The effects of loosely bound valence nucleons on the fusion cross sections are the focus of a number of experimental studies involving radioactive beams, which have only recently become available. And finally, as the active field of synthesizing superheavy elements relies on heavy-ion fusion to reach the nuclei of interest, it is important to understand the fusion dynamics that plays a crucial role in both the “cold-fusion” and “hot-fusion” approaches to the superheavy island of stability. Also this area has seen significant progress in several different approaches to the problem of predicting the cross sections for formation and survival of these rare nuclei.