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Optimal finite-time thermodynamics of effective two-level systems

Alberto Rolandi*

  • Atominstitut, TU Wien, 1020 Vienna, Austria and Institute for Quantum Optics and Quantum Information - IQOQI Vienna, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Boltzmanngasse 3, A-1090 Vienna, Austria

  • *Contact author: alberto.rolandi@tuwien.ac.at
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Phys. Rev. E 113, 044133 – Published 28 April, 2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/hv2n-5dcs

Abstract

The optimization of the conversion of thermal energy into work and the minimization of dissipation for nano- and mesoscopic systems is a complex challenge because of the important role fluctuations play on the dynamics of small systems. I generalize the work of Esposito et al. [Europhys. Lett. 89, 20003 (2010)] to optimize at all driving speeds the control needed to extract the maximum amount of work from any effective two-level systems. These emerge when one coarse grains degrees of freedom, which is often unavoidable to obtain “real-world” two-level systems. In particular, I allow even for the system to have underlying quantum dynamics, as long as these allow for a coarse graining that leads to a Markovian master equation. I analyze the finite-time thermodynamics of these systems and find the thermodynamically optimal protocols, which depend on the size of the coarse graining needed to obtain a two-level system. Furthermore, I use these results to derive speed limits for any transformation performed on an effective two-level system.

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Phys. Rev. E 113, 044133– Published 28 April, 2026
  • Received 22 September 2025
  • Accepted 3 April 2026
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Published by the American Physical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article's title, journal citation, and DOI.

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