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Analytic derivation of the GW spectrum from bubble collisions in an FLRW universe

Masaki Yamada

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Phys. Rev. D 113, 023517 – Published 13 January, 2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/p5h3-zrsx

Abstract

We generalize the analytic formula for the gravitational-wave spectrum from bubble collisions during a cosmological first-order phase transition, under the thin-wall and envelope approximations, by incorporating the effect of cosmic expansion in the FLRW metric. Along with presenting the complete analytic expression and corresponding numerical results, we also derive simplified formulas valid in the large- and small-k limits, as well as in the Minkowski limit. The latter expansion reveals that the Minkowski approximation breaks down for β/H*≲10, where β denotes the inverse duration of the phase transition and H* the Hubble parameter at its completion. Furthermore, the next-to-leading-order term contributes about a 10% correction for β/H*∼140, a typical value for the electroweak phase transition.

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Phys. Rev. D 113, 023517– Published 13 January, 2026
  • Received 29 September 2025
  • Accepted 12 December 2025
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Published by the American Physical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article’s title, journal citation, and DOI.

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