- Physical Review Journals
All JournalsPhysics Magazine

Physical Review D

Reuse & Permissions

It is not necessary to obtain permission to reuse this article or its components as it is available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. This license permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided attribution to the author(s) and the published article's title, journal citation, and DOI are maintained. Please note that some figures may have been included with permission from other third parties. It is your responsibility to obtain the proper permission from the rights holder directly for these figures.

Export citation

Export citation

Choose format for download:

Download Citation
  • Open Access

How black hole mimickers and Shapiro-free lenses signal effective dark matter

Lirui Yang1,2,3,4,*, Will Barker5,2,3,†, Tobias Mistele6,7,‡, and Amel Durakovic5,8,9,§

  • *Contact author: ly344@cantab.ac.uk
  • †Contact author: barker@fzu.cz
  • ‡Contact author: txm523@case.edu
  • §Contact author: amel.durakovic@pmf.unsa.ba
PDF

Phys. Rev. D 113, 024068 – Published 30 January, 2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/3bnx-gxzg

Abstract

We report the existence of two exotic compact objects in the leading relativistic model of modified Newtonian dynamics, namely æther-scalar-tensor theory. This model is consistent with precision cosmology and gravitational wave constraints on tensor speed. Black hole mimickers could subtly change observations: gravitational waves from their mergers might show unusual echoes or altered ringdown patterns, and images of their horizon-scale shadows might be slightly different from those of a true black hole. Shapiro-free lenses are massless objects that deflect light without any gravitational time delay, producing distinctive lensing events. These predictions connect to ongoing and future gravitational-wave searches, horizon-scale imaging, and time-domain lensing surveys.

View figure in article

Physics Subject Headings (PhySH)

Article Text

References (85)

  1. S. S. McGaugh, J. M. Schombert, G. D. Bothun, and W. J. G. de Blok, Astrophys. J. Lett. 533, L99 (2000).
  2. T. Mistele, S. McGaugh, F. Lelli, J. Schombert, and P. Li, Astrophys. J. Lett. 969, L3 (2024).
  3. T. Mistele, Phys. Rev. D 110, 024062 (2024).
  4. M. M. Brouwer et al., Astron. Astrophys. 650, A113 (2021).
  5. F. Lelli, S. S. McGaugh, J. M. Schombert, and M. S. Pawlowski, Astrophys. J. 836, 152 (2017).
  6. M. Milgrom, Astrophys. J. 270, 365 (1983).
  7. M. Milgrom, Astrophys. J. 270, 371 (1983).
  8. M. Milgrom, Astrophys. J. 270, 384 (1983).
  9. B. Famaey and S. McGaugh, Living Rev. Relativity 15, 10 (2012).
  10. C. Skordis and T. Zlosnik, Phys. Rev. Lett. 127, 161302 (2021).
  11. T. Mistele, S. McGaugh, and S. Hossenfelder, Astron. Astrophys. 676, A100 (2023).
  12. C. Reyes and J. Sakstein, Phys. Rev. D 110, 084019 (2024).
  13. C. Reyes and J. Sakstein, Phys. Rev. D 112, 064073 (2025).
  14. R. C. Bernardo and C.-Y. Chen, Gen. Relativ. Gravit. 55, 23 (2023).
  15. C. Skordis and D. M. J. Vokrouhlicky, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 03 (2025) 035.
  16. C. T. Bolton, Nature (London) 235, 271 (1972).
  17. R. A. Remillard and J. E. McClintock, Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 44, 49 (2006).
  18. R. Schödel, T. Ott, R. Genzel, A. Eckart, N. Mouawad, and T. Alexander, Nature (London) 419, 694 (2002).
  19. A. M. Ghez, S. Salim, N. N. Weinberg et al., Astrophys. J. 689, 1044 (2008).
  20. D. Lynden-Bell and M. J. Rees, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 152, 461 (1971).
  21. J. Kormendy and L. C. Ho, Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 51, 511 (2013).
  22. R. Narayan and J. S. Heyl, Astrophys. J. 574, L139 (2002).
  23. R. Narayan and J. E. McClintock, New Astron. Rev. 51, 733 (2008).
  24. B. Abbott, R. Abbott, T. Abbott et al. (LIGO Scientific and Virgo Collaborations), Phys. Rev. Lett. 116, 221101 (2016).
  25. V. Cardoso, E. Franzin, and P. Pani, Phys. Rev. Lett. 116, 171101 (2016).
  26. H. Falcke, F. Melia, and E. Agol, Astrophys. J. Lett. 528, L13 (2000).
  27. K. E. Akiyama (Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration), Astrophys. J. Lett. 875, L1 (2019).
  28. K. E. Akiyama (Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration), Astrophys. J. Lett. 930, L12 (2022).
  29. Y. Tanaka, K. Nandra, A. C. Fabian et al., Nature (London) 375, 659 (1995).
  30. A. C. Fabian, K. Iwasawa, C. S. Reynolds, and A. J. Young, Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 112, 1145 (2000).
  31. R. E. Abuter (GRAVITY Collaboration), Astron. Astrophys. 615, L15 (2018).
  32. R. E. Abuter (GRAVITY Collaboration), Astron. Astrophys. 636, L5 (2020).
  33. I. Gott and J. Richard, Astrophys. J. 288, 422 (1985).
  34. D. Huterer and T. Vachaspati, Phys. Rev. D 68, 041301 (2003).
  35. P. Tisserand, L. Le Guillou, C. Afonso et al., Astron. Astrophys. 469, 387 (2007).
  36. P. Mróz, A. Udalski, M. K. Szymański, Ł. Wyrzykowski et al., Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 273, 4 (2024).
  37. K. T. Inoue, New Astron. 58, 47 (2018).
  38. H. Niikura, M. Takada, N. Yasuda, R. H. Lupton, T. Sumi, S. More, T. Kurita, S. Sugiyama, A. More, M. Oguri, and M. Chiba, Nat. Astron. 3, 524 (2019).
  39. J. H. Taylor and J. M. Weisberg, Astrophys. J. 345, 434 (1989).
  40. M. Kramer, I. H. Stairs, R. N. Manchester, N. Wex et al., Phys. Rev. X 11, 041050 (2021).
  41. K. Lazaridis, N. Wex, A. Jessner, M. Kramer, B. W. Stappers, J. P. W. Verbiest, T. M. Tauris et al., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 400, 805 (2009).
  42. P. C. C. Freire, N. Wex, G. Esposito-Farèse, J. P. W. Verbiest, M. Bailes, M. Kramer, I. H. Stairs, J. Antoniadis, and G. H. Janssen, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 423, 3328 (2012).
  43. G. Agazie, Z. Arzoumanian, P. T. Baker, B. Bécsy et al., Astrophys. J. Lett. 951, L8 (2023).
  44. J. Antoniadis, M. Bailes, P. Brem et al., Astron. Astrophys. 678, A50 (2023).
  45. H. G. Ellis, J. Math. Phys. (N.Y.) 14, 104 (1973).
  46. K. A. Bronnikov, Acta Phys. Pol. B 4, 251 (1973), https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4469046.
  47. M. Visser, Nucl. Phys. B328, 203 (1989).
  48. M. Visser, Lorentzian Wormholes: From Einstein to Hawking (AIP Press, New York, 1995).
  49. M. S. Morris and K. S. Thorne, Am. J. Phys. 56, 395 (1988).
  50. M. S. Morris, K. S. Thorne, and U. Yurtsever, Phys. Rev. Lett. 61, 1446 (1988).
  51. S. Sonego, J. Math. Phys. (N.Y.) 51, 092502 (2010).
  52. I. I. Shapiro, Phys. Rev. Lett. 13, 789 (1964).
  53. I. I. Shapiro, G. H. Pettengill, M. E. Ash, M. L. Stone, W. B. Smith, R. P. Ingalls, and R. A. Brockelman, Phys. Rev. Lett. 20, 1265 (1968).
  54. C. Skordis and T. Zlosnik, Phys. Rev. D 106, 104041 (2022).
  55. T. Jacobson and D. Mattingly, Phys. Rev. D 64, 024028 (2001).
  56. C. Eling, T. Jacobson, and D. Mattingly, arXiv:gr-qc/0410001.
  57. C. Skordis and T. Zlosnik, Phys. Rev. D 106, 104041 (2022).
  58. A. Durakovic and C. Skordis, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 04 (2024) 040.
  59. H. Huang, H. Lü, and J. Yang, Classical Quantum Gravity 39, 185009 (2022).
  60. S. Yazadjiev, Phys. Rev. D 96, 044045 (2017).
  61. H. G. Ellis, Gen. Relativ. Gravit. 10, 105 (1979).
  62. W.-J. Geng and H. Lü, Phys. Rev. D 93, 044035 (2016).
  63. H. Huang, J. Kunz, J. Yang, and C. Zhang, Phys. Rev. D 107, 104060 (2023).
  64. I. Z. Fisher, Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 18, 636 (1948), https://inspirehep.net/literature/4507.
  65. A. I. Janis, E. T. Newman, and J. Winicour, Phys. Rev. Lett. 20, 878 (1968).
  66. C. Eling and T. Jacobson, Classical Quantum Gravity 23, 5643 (2006).
  67. R. Xu, D. Liang, and L. Shao, Phys. Rev. D 107, 024011 (2023).
  68. Y.-H. Hsu, A. Lasenby, W. Barker, A. Durakovic, and M. Hobson, Phys. Rev. D 111, 124032 (2025).
  69. R. Palais, Commun. Math. Phys. 69, 19 (1979).
  70. M. E. Fels and C. G. Torre, Classical Quantum Gravity 19, 641 (2002).
  71. J. Oost, S. Mukohyama, and A. Wang, Universe 7, 272 (2021).
  72. C. Gao and Y.-G. Shen, Phys. Rev. D 88, 103508 (2013).
  73. M. D. Seifert and R. M. Wald, Phys. Rev. D 75, 084029 (2007).
  74. M. D. Seifert, Phys. Rev. D 76, 064002 (2007).
  75. P. Luz and S. Carloni, Classical Quantum Gravity 41, 235012 (2024).
  76. S. Deser and R. P. Woodard, Phys. Rev. Lett. 99, 111301 (2007).
  77. S.-s. Bao, S. Hou, and H. Zhang, Eur. Phys. J. C 83, 127 (2023).
  78. W. Jaffe, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 202, 995 (1983).
  79. L. Hernquist, Astrophys. J. 356, 359 (1990).
  80. W. Dehnen, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 265, 250 (1993).
  81. A. Kassiola and I. Kovner, Astrophys. J. 417, 450 (1993).
  82. https://www.csd3.cam.ac.uk.
  83. https://www.dirac.ac.uk.
  84. github.com/wevbarker/SupplementalMaterials-2504.
  85. C. Eling, T. Jacobson, and M. C. Miller, Phys. Rev. D 76, 042003 (2007).

Outline

Information

Phys. Rev. D 113, 024068– Published 30 January, 2026
  • Received 10 June 2025
  • Accepted 24 December 2025
Crossmark - Check for updates button
Creative Commons Logo

Published by the American Physical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article’s title, journal citation, and DOI.

Published by the American Physical Society

Sign In to Your Journals Account

Filter

Filter

Article Lookup

Enter a citation