[This paper is part of the Focused Collection on Instructional labs: Improving traditions and new directions.] This review article provides an overview of research on the topic of gender equity in educational physics labs. As many institutions and instructors seek to evolve or transform physics lab learning, it is important that changes are made that improve equity for all students along multiple axes of identity, including gender. The studies highlighted in this review article describe the existence of complex gender-based differences, e.g., in opportunities to tinker with lab equipment, as well as differences in grades, conceptual understanding, and motivational outcomes across a broad range of lab curricula and contexts. The studies also illustrate and explore social interactions and structures that can impact students’ experiences based on their gender identities. Although there has been less scholarship focused on proposals to reduce gender-based inequities in labs, this review article also provides an overview of some relevant proposals as well as associated research results. This overview of research on gender equity in physics labs helps to make clear that future scholarship on equity in physics labs should adopt gender frameworks that allow researchers to transcend binary gender identities and student deficit framing of research results. Likewise, a case is made that future research is needed on equity along other axes of identity, as well as research that accounts for the intersectionality of different identities, in the physics lab context.

Structural equation modeling (SEM) is a statistical method widely used in educational research to investigate relationships between variables. SEM models are typically constructed based on theoretical foundations and assessed through fit indices. However, a well-fitting SEM model alone is not sufficient to verify the causal inferences underlying the proposed model, as there are statistically equivalent models with distinct causal structures that equally well fit the data. Therefore, it is crucial for researchers using SEM to consider statistically equivalent models and to clarify why the proposed model is more accurate than the equivalent ones. However, many SEM studies did not explicitly address this important step, and no prior study in physics education research has delved into potential methods for distinguishing statistically equivalent models with differing causal structures. In this study, we use a physics identity model as an example to discuss the importance of considering statistically equivalent models and how other data can help to distinguish them. Previous research has identified three dimensions of physics identity: perceived recognition, self-efficacy, and interest. However, the relationships between these dimensions have not been thoroughly understood. In this paper, we specify a model with perceived recognition predicting self-efficacy and interest, which is inspired by individual interviews with students in physics courses to make physics learning environments equitable and inclusive. We test our model with fit indices and discuss its statistically equivalent models with different causal inferences among perceived recognition, self-efficacy, and interest. We then discuss potential experiments that could further empirically test the causal inferences underlying the models, aiding the refinement to a more accurate causal model for guiding educational improvements.

This small-scale, qualitative study uses educational design research to explore how focusing on argumentation may contribute to students’ learning to engage in inquiry independently. Understanding inquiry as the construction of a scientifically cogent argument in support of a claim may encourage students to develop personal reasons for adhering to scientific criteria and to use these with understanding rather than by rote. An understanding of the characteristics of scientific evidence may clarify why doing inquiry in specific ways is important, in addition to the how. On the basis of five design principles—derived from literature—that integrate argumentation in inquiry and enhance learning through practical activities, we developed a teaching-learning sequence of five activities aimed at developing inquiry knowledge in lower secondary school students. By means of observations of a grade 9 physics class ($N=23$, aged 14–15), students’ answers to worksheets, and self-reflection questions, we explored whether the design principles resulted in the intended students’ actions and attitudes. We studied whether the activities stimulated students to engage in argumentation and to develop the targeted inquiry knowledge. The focus on argumentation, specifically through critical evaluation of the quality of evidence, persuaded students to evaluate whether what they thought, said, or claimed was “scientifically” justifiable and convincing. They gradually uncovered key characteristics of scientific evidence, understandings of what counts as convincing in science, and why. Rather than adopting and practicing the traditional inquiry skills, students in these activities developed a cognitive need and readiness for learning such skills. Of their own accord, they used their gained insights to make deliberate decisions about collecting reliable and valid data and substantiating the reliability of their claims. This study contributes to our understanding of how to enable students to successfully engage in inquiry by extending the theoretical framework for argumentation toward teaching inquiry and by developing a tested educational approach derived from it.

When learning about the particulate nature of matter (PNM), students tend to attribute the same properties to both particles and to the substances they compose. It has been argued that this might be explained by them categorizing the wrong ontological category. To explain the relationships between submicroscopic and macroscopic levels of matter, students need to understand the concept of emergence. Building on prior work, the authors propose that crystal structures might be a suitable context for the introduction of the PNM. As there is a close connection between the behavior of the particles and the properties of crystals, students can learn the concept of emergence and therefore gain a deeper understanding of the PNM. This study investigates students’ learning about the PNM within the context of crystal structures following the methodological framework of design-based research. The aim of the study is the development of a prototypical teaching-learning sequence (TLS) on the PNM and to help developing local theories for teaching that subject. Throughout several cycles of designing and refining the TLS, a total of 40 interviews were conducted using the method of probing acceptance. Evaluative qualitative content analysis led to new insights into students’ thinking about the PNM and allowed for further development of the TLS. For example, we found that salt and snow crystals were a more effective learning context than a scanning tunnel microscopy image of graphite for students to come to understand the connection between macroscopic and submicroscopic levels of matter.

[This paper is part of the Focused Collection on Instructional labs: Improving traditions and new directions.] Physics instructional labs have long been an area of pedagogical innovation and educational research. While current stakeholders in instructional labs are undoubtedly aware of the day’s concerns, reform efforts, and empirical research within lab settings, likely less apparent are the deep-rooted connections today’s deliberations have with those from multiple educational eras across the last 200 years. To this end, this paper provides a historical analysis of instructional laboratories in undergraduate physics education in the United States, with the goal of elucidating recurring themes in educational reform and research aimed at improving these learning environments. This work aims to synthesize the recursive themes present in the instructional laboratory landscape while summarizing how new research and pedagogical trends can promote further growth in this important learning environment. Through this analysis, commonly recurring themes are identified related to the longitudinal criticism of confirmatory, “cookbook” lab structures, the community’s skepticism of instructional labs’ abilities to reinforce lecture content, and the possibility of technological and societal obstructions which may implicitly limit innovative ideas, pedagogy, and research. By bringing to light these latent recursive themes, this work hopes to work toward helping break the cycle of criticism and stifled innovation alongside recent positive movements in evidence-based reforms and promising empirical research into student learning and engagement in instructional labs.

Self-efficacy is an important measure in science education as it is predictive of persistence and success in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) courses and is an influential factor in students’ decisions to major in STEM fields. It is unclear what effect active teaching strategies have on students’ self-efficacy, which is typically measured with a pretest at the beginning of the semester and a post-test at the end of the semester. To better understand what happens to self-efficacy over the course of an actively taught physics class, in addition to the typical pretest and post-test, we used a reflective pretest. At the end of the semester, we asked students to reflect on their abilities at the beginning of the semester and we compared this “reflective” self-efficacy to both their presemester and postsemester self-efficacy. We found that students’ reflective self-efficacy was systematically lower than their self-efficacy at the beginning of the semester. Interviews reveal that discrepancies between presemester self-efficacy and reflective self-efficacy are the result of response-shift bias. Because of students’ limited experience with active learning environments, response-shift bias makes it difficult to accurately measure students’ change in self-efficacy over the semester of an actively taught physics course. We conclude that reflective pretests in combination with interviews can help educators and researchers understand if changes in self-efficacy are being masked by response-shift bias.

[This paper is part of the Focused Collection on Instructional labs: Improving traditions and new directions.] National organizations set goals of engaging students in experimentation and authentic scientific reasoning while developing normative concepts to help them develop essential skills and competencies necessary to succeed in our rapidly changing world. One framework that meets these goals is the investigative science learning environment (ISLE) approach to teaching and learning physics. While studies have been conducted on student development of scientific abilities in ISLE-based classrooms, little is known about how formative assessment helps promote student growth in this setting. This paper presents on the findings from an empirical study on how the revision of written laboratory reports positively impacts first-year high school student development of scientific abilities in an ISLE-approach classroom. We argue that the opportunity to revise written work provides students with additional exposures that are necessary to support their scientific ability development. Furthermore, we explore positive correlations between student involvement in the collaborative writing process and attitudes regarding experimental physics.

Research in astronomy education has uncovered that many learners possess limited and fragmented understanding of stars. The corresponding misconceptions manifest in various areas such as star formation, size, the relationship between stars and planets, and their position in space and have been shown to persist across different age groups and educational settings, highlighting the need for further investigation. This paper presents the findings of an empirical study that examines secondary students’ views of stars and their evolution throughout their secondary school education. We designed and evaluated an instrument for assessing students’ views of stars in five domains (stars and the solar system, formation and evolution of stars, general properties and motion of stars, (sub-)stellar objects, as well as color and brightness). The instrument creation process involved several steps, including literature-based item development, an expert survey with faculty members, and a quantitative pilot study with a sample of $N=390$ secondary school and college students. This process led to a final version of the instrument that exhibits good psychometric properties. We used this new instrument in a cross-age study to investigate the alignment of secondary students’ ideas about stars with scientific views across different stages of secondary education. The sample of this main study comprised a total of $N=366$ learners, including 148 lower (aged 13–14 years), 151 middle (aged 15–16 years), and 67 upper (aged 17–18 years) secondary school students. Our study findings reveal a progressive development of students’ perspectives on star-related topics throughout their school education: Using analyses of variance and conducting pairwise post hoc comparisons, we observed a statistically significant increase in the proportion of responses aligning with scientific views across all aspects of stars examined in this study, as students progressed from lower secondary to upper secondary levels. We further report on widely held views of stars among our study participants that do not align with the scientific views and discuss the implications of our findings for both educational research and practice.

This paper presents the results of a confirmatory factor analysis on two self-efficacy scales designed to probe the self-efficacy of college-level introductory astronomy (Astro-101) students ($n=1381$) from 22 institutions across the United States of America and Canada. The students undertook a course based on similar curriculum materials, which involved students using robotic telescopes to support their learning of astronomical concepts covered in the “traditional” Astro-101 courses. Previous research by the authors using these self-efficacy scales within a pre-/post-test approach showed both high reliabilities and very high construct validities. However, the scale purporting to measure students’ self-efficacy in relation to their use of the astronomical instrumentation associated with online robotic telescopes was particularly skewed and required further investigation. This current study builds on the previous work and shows how a slight adjustment of the survey items presents an improved and robust scale for measuring self-efficacy.

Solving problems is crucial for learning physics, and not only final solutions but also their derivations are important. Grading these derivations is labor intensive, as it generally involves human evaluation of handwritten work. AI tools have not been an alternative, since even for short answers, they needed specific training for each problem or set of problems. Extensively pretrained AI systems offer a potentially universal grading solution without this specific training. This feasibility study explores an AI-assisted workflow to grade handwritten physics derivations using MathPix and GPT-4. We were able to successfully scan handwritten solution paths and achieved an R-squared of 0.84 compared to human graders on a synthetic dataset. The proposed workflow appears promising for formative feedback, but for final evaluations, it would best be used to assist human graders.

This study contributes to the literature on the role of communities of learners in the professional development of physics teachers. It offers insights from the Collabora—A Community of Learners on Laboratory Work program, designed to enhance the use of laboratories in secondary school physics teaching. The program’s foundation rested upon two pillars: a learning community approach and action research, grounded in the findings of physics education research. Furthermore, the program was structured to encompass the core features of effective professional development as outlined in the literature (content focus, active learning opportunities, coherence with teachers’ needs, and sufficient duration). The program spanned 2 years. During the first year, teachers engaged with and discussed different types of experiments, reflected on the assessment of scientific practices, and participated in action research aimed at improving laboratory activities in their classrooms. In the second year, they focused on integrating laboratory work within teaching-learning sequences developed through a backward design process. The research questions of this study were centered on examining the role and relevance of program features, with particular emphasis on the learning community and action research components, and on investigating the changes reported by teachers as a result of participating in the program. The findings emphasize the pivotal role of the teacher community, with reciprocal training identified as the “truly developmental” element. Moreover, they corroborate the relevance of action research in fostering a sense of ownership of research-based innovations. Over the course of the program, teachers reported changes in the personal domain, in the domain of practice, and, particularly in the second year, also in the domain of student outcomes. These changes included the use of different types of experiments, a greater sense of self-efficacy in the laboratory, and an increased focus on the design and assessment of laboratory work. We studied changes through a “growth” lens, both at the group level and within a subset of individual case studies. The latter analysis highlights different possible productive pathways to teachers’ growth, supporting a view of teacher professional development as complex and multifaceted. The program structure facilitated the processes of “enactment” and “reflection” that mediated the various changes.

Despite its crucial importance in physics, there are not many studies focusing on student difficulties and teaching strategies related to the (1D) wave equation in the PER literature. In order to contribute to fill this gap, we conducted a study with university students which focused on specific aspects that are crucial for understanding this equation. Our results include not only key learning difficulties and potential teaching strategies to circumvent them, but they also suggest that students can search for a deeper understanding of physics equations when prompted to do so.

Recent critiques of physics education research (PER) studies have revoiced the critical issues when drawing causal inferences from observational data where no intervention is present. In response to a call for a “causal reasoning primer” in PER, this paper discusses some of the fundamental issues in statistical causal inference. In reviewing these issues, we discuss well-established causal inference methods commonly applied in other fields and discuss their application to PER. Using simulated data sets, we illustrate (i) why analysis for causal inference should control for confounders but not control for mediators and colliders and (ii) that multiple proposed causal models can fit a highly correlated dataset. Finally, we discuss how these causal inference methods can be used to represent and explain existing issues in quantitative PER. Throughout, we discuss a central issue in observational studies: A good quantitative model fit for a proposed causal model is not sufficient to support that proposed model over alternative models. To address this issue, we propose an explicit role for observational studies in PER that draw statistical causal inferences: Proposing future intervention studies and predicting their outcomes. Mirroring the way that theory can motivate experiments in physics, observational studies in PER can predict the causal effects of interventions, and future intervention studies can test those predictions directly.

[This paper is part of the Focused Collection on Instructional labs: Improving traditions and new directions.] Physics lab courses permanently undergo transformations, in recent times especially to adapt to the emergence of new digital technologies and the COVID-19 pandemic in which digital technologies facilitated distance learning. Since these transformations often occur within individual institutions, it is useful to get an overview of these developments by capturing the status quo of digital technologies and the related acquisition of digital competencies in physics lab courses. Thus, we conducted a survey among physics lab instructors ($N=79$) at German, Finnish, and Croatian universities. The findings reveal that lab instructors already use a variety of digital technologies and that the pandemic particularly boosted the use of smartphones and tablets, simulations, and digital tools for communication, collaboration, and organization. The participants generally showed a positive attitude toward using digital technologies in physics lab courses, especially due to their potential for experiments and students’ competence acquisition, motivational effects, and contemporaneity. Acquiring digital competencies is rated as less important than established learning objectives, however, collecting and processing data with digital tools was rated as an important competency that students should acquire. The instructors perceived open forms of labwork and particular digital technologies for specific learning objectives (e.g., microcontrollers for experimental skills) as useful for reaching their learning objectives. Our survey contributes to the reflection of what impact the emergence of digital technologies in our society and the COVID-19 pandemic had on physics lab courses and reveals first indications for the future transformation of hands-on university physics education.

[This paper is part of the Focused Collection on Instructional labs: Improving traditions and new directions.] In this paper, we describe the results of a research project whose goals were to (1) develop and implement video-based experimental investigations using the Investigative Science Learning Environment (ISLE) approach and (2) study how students who engage with video experiments develop scientific abilities and learn physics ideas in comparison to students who do the same investigations using physical apparatus. We developed six parallel ISLE-based investigations for the students to engage in, either with apparatus or with video arrays created in the Pivot platform. We found that substituting 30% of the apparatus-based activities with video-based activities did not affect student development of conceptual physics knowledge. On the other hand, the development of certain scientific abilities was significantly affected by whether students experimented with physical apparatus or used video experiments.

Measurement uncertainty is an important topic in the undergraduate laboratory curriculum. Previous research on student thinking about experimental measurement uncertainty has focused primarily on introductory-level students’ procedural reasoning about data collection and interpretation. In this paper, we extended this prior work to study upper-level students’ thinking about sources of measurement uncertainty across experimental contexts, with a particular focus on classical and quantum mechanics contexts. We developed a survey to probe students’ thinking in the generic question “What comes to mind when you think about measurement uncertainty in [classical/quantum] mechanics?” as well as in a range of specific experimental scenarios and interpreted student responses through the lens of availability and accessibility of knowledge pieces. We found that limitations of the experimental setup were most accessible to students in classical mechanics while principles of the underlying physics theory were most accessible to students in quantum mechanics, even in a context in which this theory was not relevant. We recommend that future research probe which sources of uncertainty experts believe are relevant in which contexts and how instruction in both classical and quantum contexts can help students draw on appropriate sources of uncertainty in classical and quantum experiments.