Mosquitoes exhibit unique motion patterns that have attracted growing interest from researchers aiming to understand their underlying aerodynamic mechanisms. However, previous studies have primarily focused on hovering flight. In the present study, we measured for the first time the kinematic and morphological data of mosquitoes Aedes togoi in forward flight using three orthogonally aligned and synchronized high-speed cameras, and numerically computed the forces acting on the wing and the surrounding flow. The results show that mosquito wing kinematics in forward flight exhibit two distinctive features that differ from those observed in most other insects. One feature is that the mosquito's stroke plane remains nearly horizontal; the other is that its wing pitching motion is remarkably asymmetric between the downstroke and upstroke. More specifically, the pitch-down acceleration at the beginning of the stroke and the pitch-up amplitude in the middle of the stroke are highly asymmetric. By establishing the kinematic-fluid-aerodynamic link, two novel thrust-generation mechanisms in mosquito forward flight are revealed: asymmetric pitch-down acceleration mechanism and asymmetric pitch-up amplitude mechanism. The mass-specific power of mosquitoes in forward flight is found to be comparable to that of hovering, and approximately 27% lower than that of the smaller mosquitoes Aedes aegypti, potentially offering larger mosquitoes an energetic advantage in seeking and feeding on hosts. These findings not only deepen our understanding of mosquito flight mechanics but also provide new insights for the kinematic design of micro flapping-wing vehicles in forward flight.

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• Aerodynamics
• Biological fluid dynamics
• Flying
• Low Reynolds number flows
• Vortex dynamics