• Accepted Paper

Bifurcation and hysteresis in vacuum diodes

Ashmita Panda and Allen L. Garner

Phys. Rev. E - Accepted 22 October, 2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/jv7k-m1lp

Abstract

The space-charge-limited-current-density (SCLCD) for a 1D vacuum diode for zero initial electron velocity, u0=0, in vacuum is given by the Child-Langmuir law, JCL. For electrons with u0̸ne0 in vacuum, Jaff´e modified JCL to obtain the SCLCD as JJaff´e. For current densities J>JJaff´e, electron reflections occur along with virtual cathode (VC) oscillations. Past studies have discussed hysteresis in diodes by sustaining these oscillations until J=Jhys, often claiming Jhys≈JLD<JJaff´e, where JLD, also called the bifurcation solution, represents the steady-state current density where the electron velocity is zero at the VC. In this study, we demonstrate that JLD is not a valid steady-state solution since it represents a higher charge density than JJaff´e, the true SCLCD. We further demonstrate that JJaff´e mathematically corresponds to the static bifurcation solution. Using particle-in-cell simulations across various gap distances and voltages, we demonstrate that Jhys consistently differs from JLD and can be represented by a simple semi-empirical relationship as a function of JJaff´e/JCL.

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