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Dark matter freeze-in and small-scale observables: Novel mass bounds and viable particle candidates

Francesco D’Eramo1,2,*, Alessandro Lenoci3,4,†, and Ariane Dekker5,‡

  • *Contact author: francesco.deramo@pd.infn.it
  • †Contact author: alessandro.lenoci@mail.huji.ac.il
  • ‡Contact author: ahdekker@uchicago.edu
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Phys. Rev. D 112, 116008 – Published 8 December, 2025

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/j62q-cvkr

Abstract

The suppression of cosmological structure at small scales is a key signature of dark matter (DM) produced via freeze-in in the low-mass regime. We present a comprehensive analysis of its impact, incorporating recent constraints from Milky Way satellite counts, strong gravitational lensing with James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) data, and the Lyman-α forest. We adopt a general strategy to translate existing warm dark matter (WDM) bounds into lower mass limits for a broad class of DM candidates characterized by quasithermal phase space distributions. The benefits of this approach include computational efficiency and the ability to explore a wide range of models. We derive model-independent bounds for DM produced via two-body decays, scatterings, and three-body decays, and apply the framework to concrete scenarios such as the Higgs portal, sterile neutrinos, axionlike particles, and the dark photon portal. Results from specific models confirm the validity of the model-independent analysis.

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Phys. Rev. D 112, 116008– Published 8 December, 2025
  • Received 24 June 2025
  • Accepted 11 November 2025
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