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Crowdsourcing gravitational waves from superradiant axions

Sebastian A. R. Ellis1,*, Orion Ning2,3,†, Nicholas L. Rodd2,3,‡, and Jan Schütte-Engel4,5,§

  • *Contact author: sebastian.ellis@kcl.ac.uk
  • †Contact author: orion.ning@berkeley.edu
  • ‡Contact author: nrodd@lbl.gov
  • §Contact author: janschue@berkeley.edu
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Phys. Rev. D 114, 075027 – Published 21 October, 2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/ddc7-2pch

Abstract

Black hole superradiance is a powerful probe of ultralight axions. If nature contains a boson with a mass of order 10−12  eV, mere vacuum fluctuations will lead to its efficient production around spinning stellar mass black holes, forming a gravitational atom that both drains the black hole spin and decays to produce near-monochromatic gravitational waves. Existing superradiance constraints derive primarily from spin measurements of a handful of identified black holes. Here we instead present a detailed study of the population level effect: gravitational waves arising from both the 100 million black holes in the Milky Way and the stochastic signal from axion clouds throughout the universe. We study the impact of a broad range of systematic uncertainties on the black hole properties and compute the projected axion sensitivity for LIGO, as well as the future instruments Einstein Telescope, Cosmic Explorer, and a high-frequency magnetic Weber bar. We demonstrate that LIGO can robustly probe axion masses from roughly 10−13  eV to 4×10−12  eV. If the black hole population extends to masses slightly below 5M⊙—as hinted for by LIGO inspiral observations—LIGO would approach 10−11  eV. Under that same assumption we show that a future high-frequency detector could push considerably higher, potentially beyond 10−10  eV in the most optimistic scenarios, reaching toward the lowest masses within the projected sensitivity of axion dark matter searches.

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Outline

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Phys. Rev. D 114, 075027– Published 21 October, 2026
  • Received 6 April 2026
  • Revised 18 September 2026
  • Accepted 22 September 2026
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