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  • Open Access

Model-independent measurement of the Hubble constant from gravitational-wave standard sirens and electromagnetic observations

Gaurav N. Gadbail* and Kazuharu Bamba†

  • *Contact author: gauravgadbail6@gmail.com
  • †Contact author: bamba@sss.fukushima-u.ac.jp
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Phys. Rev. D 113, 123557 – Published 30 June, 2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/5k9s-wyzg

Abstract

The Hubble tension is one of the most significant challenges in modern cosmology. Developing new approaches to estimate the Hubble constant is therefore crucial, and in this work, we employ a Gaussian process, a fully model-independent method that relies solely on observational data. To determine the Hubble constant, we use not only electromagnetic observations but also include gravitational-wave standard siren data from GWTC3. Our measurements of the Hubble constant are strongly consistent with the SH0ES result, with tensions less than 2σ, indicating no statistically significant discrepancy. This approach quantifies the impact of gravitational-wave data on the determination of the Hubble constant, examines its consistency with electromagnetic measurements, and explores its potential role in addressing the Hubble tension.

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Phys. Rev. D 113, 123557– Published 30 June, 2026
  • Received 6 February 2026
  • Accepted 1 June 2026
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Published by the American Physical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article’s title, journal citation, and DOI.

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