- Physical Review Journals
All JournalsPhysics Magazine

Physical Review D

Reuse & Permissions

It is not necessary to obtain permission to reuse this article or its components as it is available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. This license permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided attribution to the author(s) and the published article's title, journal citation, and DOI are maintained. Please note that some figures may have been included with permission from other third parties. It is your responsibility to obtain the proper permission from the rights holder directly for these figures.

Export citation

Export citation

Choose format for download:

Download Citation
  • Open Access

Gravitational waves created by current-carrying domain walls

Anish Ghoshal1,* and Yu Hamada2,3,†

  • *Contact author: anish.ghoshal@fuw.edu.pl
  • †Contact author: yu.hamada@desy.de
PDF

Phys. Rev. D 112, 115019 – Published 5 December, 2025

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/24w5-rflt

Abstract

Domain wall (DW) networks may have formed in the early Universe following the spontaneous breaking of a discrete symmetry. Notably, several particle physics models predict the existence of current-carrying DWs, which can capture and store particles as zero modes on it. In this study, we demonstrate that gravitational waves (GWs) generated by current-carrying DWs with fermionic zeromodes exhibit a novel feature: an additional peak with a distinct spectral shape in the GW spectrum resembling mountains, arising from metastable topological remnants, which we term “spherons.” This distinct signature could be detectable in upcoming GW observatories such as LISA. The results suggest that DW networks in beyond Standard Model scenarios could emit GW signals that are significantly stronger and with greater detectability than previously expected.

View figure in article

Physics Subject Headings (PhySH)

Article Text

References (148)

  1. W. H. Press, B. S. Ryden, and D. N. Spergel, Dynamical evolution of domain walls in an expanding universe, Astrophys. J. 347, 590 (1989).
  2. M. Hindmarsh, Analytic scaling solutions for cosmic domain walls, Phys. Rev. Lett. 77, 4495 (1996).
  3. P. P. Avelino, C. J. A. P. Martins, and J. C. R. E. Oliveira, One-scale model for domain wall network evolution, Phys. Rev. D 72, 083506 (2005).
  4. T. W. B. Kibble, Topology of cosmic domains and strings, J. Phys. A 9, 1387 (1976).
  5. A. Vilenkin, Gravitational field of vacuum domain walls and strings, Phys. Rev. D 23, 852 (1981).
  6. P. Sikivie, Of axions, domain walls and the early universe, Phys. Rev. Lett. 48, 1156 (1982).
  7. G. B. Gelmini, M. Gleiser, and E. W. Kolb, Cosmology of biased discrete symmetry breaking, Phys. Rev. D 39, 1558 (1989).
  8. T. Vachaspati, Lunar mass black holes from QCD axion cosmology, arXiv:1706.03868.
  9. F. Ferrer, E. Masso, G. Panico, O. Pujolas, and F. Rompineve, Primordial black holes from the QCD axion, Phys. Rev. Lett. 122, 101301 (2019).
  10. H. Deng, J. Garriga, and A. Vilenkin, Primordial black hole and wormhole formation by domain walls, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 04 (2017) 050.
  11. H. Deng and A. Vilenkin, Primordial black hole formation by vacuum bubbles, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 12 (2017) 044.
  12. S. Ge, Sublunar-Mass primordial black holes from closed axion domain walls, Phys. Dark Universe 27, 100440 (2020).
  13. S. Ge, J. Guo, and J. Liu, New mechanism for primordial black hole formation from the QCD axion, Phys. Rev. D 109, 123030 (2024).
  14. Y. Gouttenoire and E. Vitagliano, Primordial black holes and wormholes from domain wall networks, Phys. Rev. D 109, 123507 (2024).
  15. R. Z. Ferreira, A. Notari, O. Pujolàs, and F. Rompineve, Collapsing domain wall networks: Impact on pulsar timing arrays and primordial black holes, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 06 (2024) 020.
  16. D. I. Dunsky and M. Kongsore, Primordial black holes from axion domain wall collapse, J. High Energy Phys. 06 (2024) 198.
  17. G. B. Gelmini, A. Simpson, and E. Vitagliano, Catastrogenesis: DM, GWs, and PBHS from ALP string-wall networks, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 02 (2023) 031.
  18. G. B. Gelmini, J. Hyman, A. Simpson, and E. Vitagliano, Primordial black hole dark matter from catastrogenesis with unstable pseudo-Goldstone bosons, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 06 (2023) 055.
  19. T. Hiramatsu, M. Kawasaki, K. Saikawa, and T. Sekiguchi, Axion cosmology with long-lived domain walls, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 01 (2013) 001.
  20. T. Hiramatsu, M. Kawasaki, and K. Saikawa, On the estimation of gravitational wave spectrum from cosmic domain walls, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 02 (2014) 031.
  21. K. Saikawa, A review of gravitational waves from cosmic domain walls, Universe 3, 40 (2017).
  22. T. Krajewski, J. H. Kwapisz, Z. Lalak, and M. Lewicki, Stability of domain walls in models with asymmetric potentials, Phys. Rev. D 104, 123522 (2021).
  23. C.-F. Chang and Y. Cui, Dynamics of long-lived axion domain walls and its cosmological implications, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 06 (2025) 027.
  24. N. Kitajima, J. Lee, K. Murai, F. Takahashi, and W. Yin, Gravitational waves from domain wall collapse, and application to nanohertz signals with QCD-coupled axions, Phys. Lett. B 851, 138586 (2024).
  25. R. Z. Ferreira, S. Gasparotto, T. Hiramatsu, I. Obata, and O. Pujolas, Axionic defects in the CMB: Birefringence and gravitational waves, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 05 (2024) 066.
  26. N. Kitajima, J. Lee, F. Takahashi, and W. Yin, Stability of domain walls with inflationary fluctuations under potential bias, and gravitational wave signatures, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 07 (2025) 053.
  27. I. Dankovsky, E. Babichev, D. Gorbunov, S. Ramazanov, and A. Vikman, Revisiting evolution of domain walls and their gravitational radiation with CosmoLattice, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 09 (2024) 047.
  28. K. Nakayama, F. Takahashi, and N. Yokozaki, Gravitational waves from domain walls and their implications, Phys. Lett. B 770, 500 (2017).
  29. C. J. A. P. Martins, I. Y. Rybak, A. Avgoustidis, and E. P. S. Shellard, Extending the velocity-dependent one-scale model for domain walls, Phys. Rev. D 93, 043534 (2016).
  30. C. J. A. P. Martins, I. Y. Rybak, A. Avgoustidis, and E. P. S. Shellard, Stretching and Kibble scaling regimes for Hubble-damped defect networks, Phys. Rev. D 94, 116017 (2016).
  31. P. P. Avelino, Comparing parametric and non-parametric velocity-dependent one-scale models for domain wall evolution, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 04 (2020) 012.
  32. O. Pujolas and G. Zahariade, Domain wall annihilation: A QFT perspective, Phys. Rev. D 107, 123527 (2023).
  33. D. Grüber, L. Sousa, and P. P. Avelino, Stochastic gravitational wave background generated by domain wall networks, Phys. Rev. D 110, 023505 (2024).
  34. E. Witten, Superconducting strings, Nucl. Phys. B249, 557 (1985).
  35. R. L. Davis and E. P. S. Shellard, Cosmic vortons, Nucl. Phys. B323, 209 (1989).
  36. B. Carter, Cosmological relic distribution of conducting string loops, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 647, 758 (1991).
  37. B. Carter, Particle astrophysics: The Early Universe and cosmic structures, in Proceedings, 25th Rencontres de Moriond, Les Arcs, France, 1990, edited by J. M. Alimi, A. Blanchard, A. Bouquet, F. Martin de Volnay, and J. Tran Thanh Van (Ed. Frontieres, Gif-Sur-Yvette, 1990).
  38. B. Carter and X. Martin, Dynamic instability criterion for circular (Vorton) string loops, Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 227, 151 (1993).
  39. X. Martin and P. Peter, Dynamical stability of Witten rings, Phys. Rev. D 51, 4092 (1995).
  40. E. Radu and M. S. Volkov, Existence of stationary, non-radiating ring solitons in field theory: Knots and vortons, Phys. Rep. 468, 101 (2008).
  41. R. A. Battye and P. M. Sutcliffe, Vorton construction and dynamics, Nucl. Phys. B814, 180 (2009).
  42. J. Garaud, E. Radu, and M. S. Volkov, Stable cosmic vortons, Phys. Rev. Lett. 111, 171602 (2013).
  43. R. A. Battye, S. J. Cotterill, and J. A. Pearson, A detailed study of the stability of vortons, J. High Energy Phys. 04 (2022) 005.
  44. R. A. Battye and S. J. Cotterill, Stable cosmic vortons in bosonic field theory, Phys. Rev. Lett. 127, 241601 (2021).
  45. M. Ibe, S. Kobayashi, Y. Nakayama, and S. Shirai, On stability of fermionic superconducting current in cosmic string, J. High Energy Phys. 05 (2021) 217.
  46. Y. Abe, Y. Hamada, K. Saji, and K. Yoshioka, Quantum current dissipation in superconducting strings and vortons, J. High Energy Phys. 02 (2023) 004.
  47. K. Harigaya, X. Niu, W. Xue, and F. Yang, Stability of superconducting strings, J. High Energy Phys. 03 (2025) 063.
  48. J. P. Ostriker, A. C. Thompson, and E. Witten, Cosmological effects of superconducting strings, Phys. Lett. B 180, 231 (1986).
  49. M. F. Oliveira, A. Avgoustidis, and C. J. A. P. Martins, Cosmic string evolution with a conserved charge, Phys. Rev. D 85, 083515 (2012).
  50. B. Hartmann, F. Michel, and P. Peter, Excited cosmic strings with superconducting currents, Phys. Rev. D 96, 123531 (2017).
  51. R. Brandenberger, B. Cyr, and R. Shi, Constraints on superconducting cosmic strings from the global 21-cm signal before reionization, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 09 (2019) 009.
  52. B. Imtiaz, R. Shi, and Y.-F. Cai, Updated constraints on superconducting cosmic strings from the astronomy of fast radio bursts, Eur. Phys. J. C 80, 500 (2020).
  53. C. J. A. P. Martins, P. Peter, I. Y. Rybak, and E. P. S. Shellard, Generalized velocity-dependent one-scale model for current-carrying strings, Phys. Rev. D 103, 043538 (2021).
  54. H. Fukuda, A. V. Manohar, H. Murayama, and O. Telem, Axion strings are superconducting, J. High Energy Phys. 06 (2021) 052.
  55. Y. Abe, Y. Hamada, and K. Yoshioka, Electroweak axion string and superconductivity, J. High Energy Phys. 06 (2021) 172.
  56. P. Agrawal, A. Hook, J. Huang, and G. Marques-Tavares, Axion string signatures: A cosmological plasma collider, J. High Energy Phys. 01 (2022) 103.
  57. R. Thériault, J. T. Mirocha, and R. Brandenberger, Global 21 cm absorption signal from superconducting cosmic strings, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 10 (2021) 046.
  58. C. J. A. P. Martins, P. Peter, I. Y. Rybak, and E. P. S. Shellard, Charge-velocity-dependent one-scale linear model, Phys. Rev. D 104, 103506 (2021).
  59. B. Cyr, H. Jiao, and R. Brandenberger, Massive black holes at high redshifts from superconducting cosmic strings, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 517, 2221 (2022).
  60. I. Y. Rybak and L. Sousa, Emission of gravitational waves by superconducting cosmic strings, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 11 (2022) 024.
  61. P. Auclair, S. Blasi, V. Brdar, and K. Schmitz, Gravitational waves from current-carrying cosmic strings, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 04 (2023) 009.
  62. R. Jackiw and C. Rebbi, Solitons with fermion number 1/2, Phys. Rev. D 13, 3398 (1976).
  63. V. A. Rubakov and M. E. Shaposhnikov, Do we live inside a domain wall?, Phys. Lett. 125B, 136 (1983).
  64. D. B. Kaplan, A method for simulating chiral fermions on the lattice, Phys. Lett. B 288, 342 (1992).
  65. P. Peter, Surface current carrying domain walls, J. Phys. A 29, 5125 (1996).
  66. D. Stojkovic, Fermionic zero modes on domain walls, Phys. Rev. D 63, 025010 (2001).
  67. T. Vachaspati, Kinks and Domain Walls: An Introduction to Classical and Quantum Solitons (Oxford University Press, New York, 2007).
  68. R. A. Battye, G. D. Brawn, and A. Pilaftsis, Vacuum topology of the two Higgs doublet model, J. High Energy Phys. 08 (2011) 020.
  69. M. Eto, M. Kurachi, and M. Nitta, Constraints on two Higgs doublet models from domain walls, Phys. Lett. B 785, 447 (2018).
  70. R. A. Battye, A. Pilaftsis, and D. G. Viatic, Domain wall constraints on two-Higgs-doublet models with Z2 symmetry, Phys. Rev. D 102, 123536 (2020).
  71. R. A. Battye, A. Pilaftsis, and D. G. Viatic, Simulations of domain walls in two Higgs doublet models, J. High Energy Phys. 01 (2021) 105.
  72. K. H. Law and A. Pilaftsis, Charged and CP-violating kink solutions in the two-Higgs-doublet model, Phys. Rev. D 105, 056007 (2022).
  73. M. Y. Sassi and G. Moortgat-Pick, Domain walls in the two-Higgs-doublet model and their charge and CP-violating interactions with standard model fermions, J. High Energy Phys. 04 (2024) 101.
  74. B. Fu, A. Ghoshal, S. F. King, and M. H. Rahat, Type-I two-Higgs-doublet model and gravitational waves from domain walls bounded by strings, J. High Energy Phys. 08 (2024) 237.
  75. G. C. Branco, P. M. Ferreira, L. Lavoura, M. N. Rebelo, M. Sher, and J. P. Silva, Theory and phenomenology of two-Higgs-doublet models, Phys. Rep. 516, 1 (2012).
  76. C.-Y. Chen, M. Freid, and M. Sher, Next-to-minimal two Higgs doublet model, Phys. Rev. D 89, 075009 (2014).
  77. M. Muhlleitner, M. O. P. Sampaio, R. Santos, and J. Wittbrodt, The N2HDM under theoretical and experimental scrutiny, J. High Energy Phys. 03 (2017) 094.
  78. M. Mühlleitner, M. O. P. Sampaio, R. Santos, and J. Wittbrodt, Phenomenological comparison of models with extended Higgs sectors, J. High Energy Phys. 08 (2017) 132.
  79. M. Y. Sassi and G. Moortgat-Pick, Electroweak symmetry restoration in the N2HDM via domain walls, J. High Energy Phys. 06 (2025) 072.
  80. G. Lazarides and Q. Shafi, Superconducting membranes, Phys. Lett. B 159, 261 (1985).
  81. T. W. B. Kibble, G. Lazarides, and Q. Shafi, Walls bounded by strings, Phys. Rev. D 26, 435 (1982).
  82. A. Vilenkin and A. E. Everett, Cosmic strings and domain walls in models with Goldstone and pseudo-Goldstone bosons, Phys. Rev. Lett. 48, 1867 (1982).
  83. A. E. Everett and A. Vilenkin, Left-right symmetric theories and vacuum domain walls and strings, Nucl. Phys. B207, 43 (1982).
  84. J. Preskill and A. Vilenkin, Decay of metastable topological defects, Phys. Rev. D 47, 2324 (1993).
  85. D. I. Dunsky, A. Ghoshal, H. Murayama, Y. Sakakihara, and G. White, GUTs, hybrid topological defects, and gravitational waves, Phys. Rev. D 106, 075030 (2022).
  86. M. Eto, Y. Hamada, and M. Nitta, Composite topological solitons consisting of domain walls, strings, and monopoles in O(N) models, J. High Energy Phys. 08 (2023) 150.
  87. D. Stojkovic, K. Freese, and G. D. Starkman, Holes in the walls: Primordial black holes as a solution to the cosmological domain wall problem, Phys. Rev. D 72, 045012 (2005).
  88. S. Aoki and H. Fukaya, Curved domain-wall fermions, Prog. Theor. Exp. Phys. 2022, 063B04 (2022).
  89. S. Aoki and H. Fukaya, Curved domain-wall fermion and its anomaly inflow, Prog. Theor. Exp. Phys. 2023, 033B05 (2023).
  90. S. Aoki, H. Fukaya, N. Kan, M. Koshino, and Y. Matsuki, Magnetic monopole becomes dyon in topological insulators, Phys. Rev. B 108, 155104 (2023).
  91. C. J. A. P. Martins and E. P. S. Shellard, Vorton formation, Phys. Rev. D 57, 7155 (1998).
  92. S. R. Coleman, Q-balls, Nucl. Phys. B262, 263 (1985).
  93. T. D. Lee and Y. Pang, Nontopological solitons, Phys. Rep. 221, 251 (1992).
  94. J. Ipser and P. Sikivie, The gravitationally repulsive domain wall, Phys. Rev. D 30, 712 (1984).
  95. L. M. Widrow, The collapse of nearly spherical domain walls, Phys. Rev. D 39, 3576 (1989).
  96. G. Janssen et al., Gravitational wave astronomy with the SKA, Proc. Sci., AASKA14 (2015) 037 [arXiv:1501.00127].
  97. A. Weltman et al., Fundamental physics with the square kilometre array, Pub. Astron. Soc. Aust. 37, e002 (2020).
  98. J. Garcia-Bellido, H. Murayama, and G. White, Exploring the early universe with Gaia and Theia, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 12 (2021) 023.
  99. LISA Cosmology Working Group Collaboration, Cosmology with the laser interferometer space antenna, Living Rev. Relativity 26, 5 (2023).
  100. R. Flauger, N. Karnesis, G. Nardini, M. Pieroni, A. Ricciardone, and J. Torrado, Improved reconstruction of a stochastic gravitational wave background with LISA, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 01 (2021) 059.
  101. A. Sesana et al., Unveiling the gravitational universe at μ-Hz frequencies, Exp. Astron. 51, 1333 (2021).
  102. S. Kawamura et al., Current status of space gravitational wave antenna DECIGO and B-DECIGO, Prog. Theor. Exp. Phys. 2021, 05A105 (2021).
  103. AEDGE Collaboration, AEDGE: Atomic experiment for dark matter and gravity exploration in space, Eur. Phys. J. Quantum Technol. 7, 6 (2020).
  104. V. Corbin and N. J. Cornish, Detecting the cosmic gravitational wave background with the big bang observer, Classical Quantum Gravity 23, 2435 (2006).
  105. G. M. Harry, P. Fritschel, D. A. Shaddock, W. Folkner, and E. S. Phinney, Laser interferometry for the big bang observer, Classical Quantum Gravity 23, 4887 (2006).
  106. M. Punturo et al., The Einstein Telescope: A third-generation gravitational wave observatory, Classical Quantum Gravity 27, 194002 (2010).
  107. S. Hild et al., Sensitivity studies for third-generation gravitational wave observatories, Classical Quantum Gravity 28, 094013 (2011).
  108. LIGO Scientific Collaboration, Exploring the sensitivity of next generation gravitational wave detectors, Classical Quantum Gravity 34, 044001 (2017).
  109. D. Reitze et al., Cosmic explorer: The U.S. contribution to gravitational-wave astronomy beyond LIGO, Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 51, 035 (2019).
  110. A. Marriott-Best, D. Chowdhury, A. Ghoshal, and G. Tasinato, Exploring cosmological gravitational wave backgrounds through the synergy of LISA and ET, Phys. Rev. D 111, 103001 (2025).
  111. Planck Collaboration, Planck 2018 results. VI. Cosmological parameters, Astron. Astrophys. 641, A6 (2020).
  112. N. Sehgal et al., CMB-HD: An ultra-deep, high-resolution millimeter-wave survey over half the sky, Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 51, 1 (2019).
  113. CMB-HD Collaboration, Snowmass2021 CMB-HD white paper, arXiv:2203.05728.
  114. KAGRA, Virgo, and LIGO Scientific Collaborations, Upper limits on the isotropic gravitational-wave background from Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo’s third observing run, Phys. Rev. D 104, 022004 (2021).
  115. Y. Gouttenoire, Primordial black holes from conformal Higgs, Phys. Lett. B 855, 138800 (2024).
  116. I. Y. Rybak and L. Sousa, CMB anisotropies generated by cosmic string loops, Phys. Rev. D 104, 023507 (2021).
  117. Y. B. Zeldovich, I. Y. Kobzarev, and L. B. Okun, Cosmological consequences of the spontaneous breakdown of discrete symmetry, Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 67, 3 (1974).
  118. A. Lazanu, C. J. A. P. Martins, and E. P. S. Shellard, Contribution of domain wall networks to the CMB power spectrum, Phys. Lett. B 747, 426 (2015).
  119. L. Sousa and P. P. Avelino, Cosmic microwave background anisotropies generated by domain wall networks, Phys. Rev. D 92, 083520 (2015).
  120. N. Ramberg, W. Ratzinger, and P. Schwaller, One μ to rule them all: CMB spectral distortions can probe domain walls, cosmic strings and low scale phase transitions, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 02 (2023) 039.
  121. T. Namikawa, S. Saga, D. Yamauchi, and A. Taruya, CMB constraints on the stochastic gravitational-wave background at Mpc scales, Phys. Rev. D 100, 021303 (2019).
  122. NANOGrav Collaboration, The NANOGrav 15 yr data set: Evidence for a gravitational-wave background, Astrophys. J. Lett. 951, L8 (2023).
  123. EPTA, InPTA Collaborations, The second data release from the European Pulsar Timing array—III. Search for gravitational wave signals, Astron. Astrophys. 678, A50 (2023).
  124. H. Xu et al., Searching for the nano-hertz stochastic gravitational wave background with the Chinese Pulsar Timing array data release I, Res. Astron. Astrophys. 23, 075024 (2023).
  125. D. J. Reardon et al., Search for an isotropic Gravitational-wave background with the Parkes Pulsar Timing array, Astrophys. J. Lett. 951, L6 (2023).
  126. M. C. Huang and P. Sikivie, The structure of axionic domain walls, Phys. Rev. D 32, 1560 (1985).
  127. A. Vilenkin and E. P. S. Shellard, Cosmic Strings and Other Topological Defects (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 2000).
  128. S. Blasi, A. Mariotti, A. Rase, A. Sevrin, and K. Turbang, Friction on ALP domain walls and gravitational waves, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 04 (2023) 008.
  129. S. Hassan, G. R. Kane, J. March-Russell, and G. Obied, Chern-Simons induced thermal friction on axion domain walls, J. High Energy Phys. 03 (2025) 022.
  130. J.-P. Hong, S. Jung, and K.-P. Xie, Fermi-ball dark matter from a first-order phase transition, Phys. Rev. D 102, 075028 (2020).
  131. K. Kawana and K.-P. Xie, Primordial black holes from a cosmic phase transition: The collapse of Fermi-balls, Phys. Lett. B 824, 136791 (2022).
  132. G. White, L. Pearce, D. Vagie, and A. Kusenko, Detectable gravitational wave signals from Affleck-Dine baryogenesis, Phys. Rev. Lett. 127, 181601 (2021).
  133. S. Kasuya, M. Kawasaki, and K. Murai, Enhancement of second-order gravitational waves at Q-ball decay, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 05 (2023) 053.
  134. M. Kawasaki and K. Murai, Enhancement of gravitational waves at Q-ball decay including non-linear density perturbations, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 01 (2024) 050.
  135. Y.-H. Yu and S. Wang, Large anisotropies in the gravitational wave background from baryogenesis, arXiv:2504.07838.
  136. N. Aggarwal et al., Challenges and opportunities of gravitational-wave searches at MHz to GHz frequencies, Living Rev. Relativity 24, 4 (2021).
  137. I. Baldes, Y. Gouttenoire, F. Sala, and G. Servant, Supercool composite dark matter beyond 100 TeV, J. High Energy Phys. 07 (2022) 084.
  138. B. Allen and J. D. Romano, Detecting a stochastic background of gravitational radiation: Signal processing strategies and sensitivities, Phys. Rev. D 59, 102001 (1999).
  139. H. Kudoh, A. Taruya, T. Hiramatsu, and Y. Himemoto, Detecting a gravitational-wave background with next-generation space interferometers, Phys. Rev. D 73, 064006 (2006).
  140. E. Thrane and J. D. Romano, Sensitivity curves for searches for gravitational-wave backgrounds, Phys. Rev. D 88, 124032 (2013).
  141. C. Caprini, D. G. Figueroa, R. Flauger, G. Nardini, M. Peloso, M. Pieroni, A. Ricciardone, and G. Tasinato, Reconstructing the spectral shape of a stochastic gravitational wave background with LISA, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 11 (2019) 017.
  142. D. Brzeminski, A. Hook, and G. Marques-Tavares, Precision early universe cosmology from stochastic gravitational waves, J. High Energy Phys. 11 (2022) 061.
  143. C. Caprini et al., Science with the space-based interferometer eLISA. II: Gravitational waves from cosmological phase transitions, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 04 (2016) 001.
  144. M. Maggiore, Gravitational wave experiments and early universe cosmology, Phys. Rep. 331, 283 (2000).
  145. CMB-S4 Collaboration, CMB-S4: Forecasting constraints on primordial gravitational waves, Astrophys. J. 926, 54 (2022).
  146. CMB-S4 Collaboration, Snowmass 2021 CMB-S4 white paper, arXiv:2203.08024.
  147. https://dcc.cosmicexplorer.org/CE-T2000017/public
  148. M. Breitbach, J. Kopp, E. Madge, T. Opferkuch, and P. Schwaller, Dark, cold, and noisy: Constraining secluded hidden sectors with gravitational waves, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 07 (2019) 007.

Outline

Information

Phys. Rev. D 112, 115019– Published 5 December, 2025
  • Received 26 February 2025
  • Accepted 9 November 2025
Crossmark - Check for updates button
Creative Commons Logo

Published by the American Physical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article’s title, journal citation, and DOI. Funded by SCOAP3.

Published by the American Physical Society

Sign In to Your Journals Account

Filter

Filter

Article Lookup

Enter a citation