- Physical Review Journals
All JournalsPhysics Magazine

Physical Review D

Reuse & Permissions

It is not necessary to obtain permission to reuse this article or its components as it is available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. This license permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided attribution to the author(s) and the published article's title, journal citation, and DOI are maintained. Please note that some figures may have been included with permission from other third parties. It is your responsibility to obtain the proper permission from the rights holder directly for these figures.

Export citation

Export citation

Choose format for download:

Download Citation
  • Open Access

Melting LHC detectors: A novel search for stopped long-lived particles

Julia L. Gonski1, Peter W. Graham2,3, Surjeet Rajendran4, Harikrishnan Ramani5, and Samuel S. Y. Wong2,6,*

  • *Contact author: samswong@uw.edu
PDF

Phys. Rev. D 114, 075036 – Published 27 October, 2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/1x1q-mncc

Abstract

Particles at the TeV scale with lifetimes of a year or longer could have been abundantly produced at the LHC yet escaped detection because of backgrounds, and could still be trapped within detector materials. With gluinos in split supersymmetry as a working example, we show that these trapped particles can be recovered from detector materials once prepared in liquid form, for example, by melting silicon detectors, extracting liquid argon from the electromagnetic calorimeter, or constructing a large water pool near ATLAS or CMS. These liquid samples can then be processed using iterative centrifugation followed by mass spectrometry, enabling single-particle sensitivity in macroscopic samples. This method can potentially discover gluinos up to 3 TeV in mass at the HL-LHC. It can also improve upon existing limits for other long-lived particles. For example, it can discover the stop up to 2 TeV, and will also be sensitive to integer-charged particles in the TeV range.

View figure in article

Physics Subject Headings (PhySH)

Article Text

References (141)

  1. J. Alimena et al., Searching for long-lived particles beyond the standard model at the large hadron collider, J. Phys. G 47, 090501 (2020).
  2. J. Pinfold et al. (MoEDAL Collaboration), Technical design report of the MoEDAL experiment, Report No. CERN-LHCC-2009-006, MoEDAL-TDR-001 (2009), https://cds.cern.ch/record/1181486.
  3. J. P. Chou, D. Curtin, and H. J. Lubatti, New detectors to explore the lifetime frontier, Phys. Lett. B 767, 29 (2017).
  4. A. Haas, C. S. Hill, E. Izaguirre, and I. Yavin, Looking for milli-charged particles with a new experiment at the LHC, Phys. Lett. B 746, 117 (2015).
  5. V. V. Gligorov, S. Knapen, M. Papucci, and D. J. Robinson, Searching for long-lived particles: A compact detector for exotics at LHCb, Phys. Rev. D 97, 015023 (2018).
  6. J. L. Feng, I. Galon, F. Kling, and S. Trojanowski, ForwArd search ExpeRiment at the LHC, Phys. Rev. D 97, 035001 (2018).
  7. G. Aad et al. (ATLAS Collaboration), Search for events with a pair of displaced vertices from long-lived neutral particles decaying into hadronic jets in the ATLAS muon spectrometer in pp collisions at s=13  TeV, Phys. Rev. D 106, 032005 (2022).
  8. G. Aad et al. (ATLAS Collaboration), Search for light long-lived neutral particles that decay to collimated pairs of leptons or light hadrons in pp collisions at s=13  TeV with the ATLAS detector, J. High Energy Phys. 06 (2022) 153.
  9. G. Aad et al. (ATLAS Collaboration), Search for long-lived, massive particles in events with a displaced vertex and a muon with large impact parameter in pp collisions at s=13  TeV with the ATLAS detector, Phys. Rev. D 102, 032006 (2020).
  10. G. Aad et al. (ATLAS Collaboration), Search for long-lived neutral particles produced in pp collisions at s=13  TeV decaying into displaced hadronic jets in the ATLAS inner detector and muon spectrometer, Phys. Rev. D 101, 052013 (2020).
  11. G. Aad et al. (ATLAS Collaboration), Search for neutral long-lived particles in pp collisions at s=13  TeV that decay into displaced hadronic jets in the ATLAS calorimeter, J. High Energy Phys. 06 (2022) 005.
  12. G. Aad et al. (ATLAS Collaboration), Search for light long-lived neutral particles from Higgs boson decays via vector-boson-fusion production from pp collisions at s=13  TeV with the ATLAS detector, Eur. Phys. J. C 84, 719 (2024).
  13. M. Aaboud et al. (ATLAS Collaboration), Search for long-lived, massive particles in events with displaced vertices and missing transverse momentum in s=13  TeV pp collisions with the ATLAS detector, Phys. Rev. D 97, 052012 (2018).
  14. A. Tumasyan et al. (CMS Collaboration), Search for long-lived heavy neutral leptons with displaced vertices in proton-proton collisions at s=13  TeV, J. High Energy Phys. 07 (2022) 081.
  15. A. M. Sirunyan et al. (CMS Collaboration), Search for long-lived particles decaying into displaced jets in proton-proton collisions at s=13  TeV, Phys. Rev. D 99, 032011 (2019).
  16. A. Tumasyan et al. (CMS Collaboration), Search for long-lived particles decaying into muon pairs in proton-proton collisions at s=13  TeV collected with a dedicated high-rate data stream, J. High Energy Phys. 04 (2022) 062.
  17. R. Aaij et al. (LHCb Collaboration), Search for massive long-lived particles decaying semileptonically at s=13  TeV, Eur. Phys. J. C 82, 373 (2022).
  18. B. Aitken et al. (MATHUSLA Collaboration), MATHUSLA: An external long-lived particle detector to maximize the discovery potential of the HL-LHC, arXiv:2504.01999.
  19. G. Aad et al. (ATLAS Collaboration), Search for long-lived charged particles using large specific ionisation loss and time of flight in 140 fb-1 of pp collisions at s=13  TeV with the ATLAS detector, J. High Energy Phys. 07 (2025) 140.
  20. G. Aad et al. (ATLAS Collaboration), Search for heavy, long-lived, charged particles with large ionisation energy loss in pp collisions at s=13  TeV using the ATLAS experiment and the full Run 2 dataset, J. High Energy Phys. 06 (2023) 158.
  21. A. Hayrapetyan et al. (CMS Collaboration), Search for heavy long-lived charged particles with large ionization energy loss in proton-proton collisions at s=13  TeV, J. High Energy Phys. 04 (2024) 109.
  22. J. Gonski (ATLAS Collaboration), Highlights from long-lived particle searches at ATLAS, in 56th Rencontres de Moriond on QCD and High Energy Interactions, arXiv:2205.07669.
  23. G. Aad et al. (ATLAS Collaboration), Software performance of the ATLAS track reconstruction for LHC run 3, Comput. Softw. Big Sci. 8, 9 (2024).
  24. T. A. Collaboration (ATLAS Collaboration), Expected performance of the ATLAS detector at the high-luminosity LHC, Report No. ATL-PHYS-PUB-2019-005 (2019), https://cds.cern.ch/record/2655304.
  25. Report on the Physics at the HL-LHC,and Perspectives for the HE-LHC, edited by A. Dainese, M. Mangano, A. B. Meyer, A. Nisati, G. Salam, and M. A. Vesterinen, CERN Yellow Reports: Monographs Vol. 7/2019 (CERN, Geneva, Switzerland, 2019).
  26. Expected pileup values at the HL-LHC, Technical Report, CERN, Geneva, 2013.
  27. B. Bhattacherjee, A. Kumar, S. Mukherjee, R. Sengupta, and A. Sharma, From obstacle to opportunity: Uncovering the silver lining of pileup, Phys. Lett. B 873, 140121 (2026).
  28. A. Arvanitaki, S. Dimopoulos, A. Pierce, S. Rajendran, and J. G. Wacker, Stopping gluinos, Phys. Rev. D 76, 055007 (2007).
  29. G. Aad et al. (ATLAS Collaboration), A search for the decays of stopped long-lived particles at s=13  TeV with the ATLAS detector, J. High Energy Phys. 07 (2021) 173.
  30. M. Aaboud et al. (ATLAS Collaboration), Study of the material of the ATLAS inner detector for run 2 of the LHC, J. Instrum. 12, P12009 (2017).
  31. G. Aad et al. (ATLAS Collaboration), Expected tracking performance of the ATLAS inner tracker at the High-Luminosity LHC, J. Instrum. 20, P02018 (2025).
  32. L. Meng (ATLAS Collaboration), ATLAS ITk pixel detector overview, in International Workshop on Future Linear Colliders (2021), arXiv:2105.10367.
  33. ATLAS liquid-argon calorimeter: Technical design report, Technical Design Report. ATLAS, CERN, Geneva, 1996.
  34. T. Alväger and R. Naumann, Search for stable heavy massive particles of positive integral charge, Phys. Lett. 24B, 647 (1967).
  35. R. A. Muller, L. W. Alvarez, W. R. Holley, and E. J. Stephenson, Quarks with unit charge: A search for anomalous hydrogen, Science 196, 521 (1977).
  36. R. Boyd, D. Elmore, D. Nitz, S. Olsen, E. Sugarbaker, and G. Warren, A search for integrally charged quarks, Phys. Lett. B 72, 484 (1978).
  37. R. Middleton, R. W. Zurmühle, J. Klein, and R. V. Kollarits, Search for an anomalously heavy isotope of oxygen, Phys. Rev. Lett. 43, 429 (1979).
  38. P. F. Smith and J. R. J. Bennett, A search for heavy stable particles, Nucl. Phys. B149, 525 (1979).
  39. P. F. Smith, J. R. J. Bennett, G. J. Homer, J. D. Lewin, H. E. Walford, and W. A. Smith, A search for anomalous hydrogen in enriched D-2 O, using a time-of-flight spectrometer, Nucl. Phys. B206, 333 (1982).
  40. J. Klein, R. Middleton, and W. E. Stevens, Search for anomalously heavy isotopes, in Proceedings of the Symposium on Accelerator Mass Spectrometry, Argonne National Laboratory Report No. ANL/PHY-81-1, edited by W. Henning, W. Kutschera, R. K. Smither, and J. L. Yntema (Argonne, Illinois, USA, 1981), p. 136.
  41. A. Turkevich, K. Wielgoz, and T. E. Economou, Searching for supermassive cahn-glashow particles, Phys. Rev. D 30, 1876 (1984).
  42. W. J. Dick, G. W. Greenlees, and S. L. Kaufman, Search for anomalous isotopes of sodium, Phys. Rev. Lett. 53, 431 (1984).
  43. E. B. Norman, S. B. Gazes, and D. A. Bennett, Searches for supermassive X− particles in iron, Phys. Rev. Lett. 58, 1403 (1987).
  44. M. Brugger, K. Lutzenkirchen, S. Polikanov, G. Herrmann, M. Overbeck, N. Trautmann, A. Breskin, R. Chechik, Z. Fraenkel, and U. Smilansky, Search for strange matter by Rutherford backscattering, Nature (London) 337, 434 (1989).
  45. B. Pichard, J. Rich, M. Spiro, F. Biraben, G. Grynberg, P. Verkerk, M. E. Goldberg, and P. Fayet, On the possibility of detecting superheavy hydrogen through centrifugation and atomic spectroscopy, Phys. Lett. B 193, 383 (1987).
  46. P. Verkerk, G. Grynberg, B. Pichard, M. Spiro, S. Zylberajch, M. E. Goldberg, and P. Fayet, Search for superheavy hydrogen in sea water, Phys. Rev. Lett. 68, 1116 (1992).
  47. T. K. Hemmick et al., A search for anomalously heavy isotopes of low Z nuclei, Phys. Rev. D 41, 2074 (1990).
  48. S. Polikanov, C. Sastri, G. Herrmann, K. Lützenkirchen, M. Overbeck, N. Trautmann, A. Breskin, R. Chechik, and Z. Fraenkel, Search for supermassive nuclei in nature, Z. Phys. 338, 357 (1991).
  49. T. Yamagata, Y. Takamori, and H. Utsunomiya, Search for anomalously heavy hydrogen in deep sea water at 4000 m, Phys. Rev. D 47, 1231 (1993).
  50. D. Javorsek, D. Elmore, E. Fischbach, D. Granger, T. Miller, D. Oliver, and V. Teplitz, New experimental limits on strongly interacting massive particles at the tev scale, Phys. Rev. Lett. 87, 231804 (2001).
  51. M. L. Perl, P. C. Kim, V. Halyo, E. R. Lee, I. T. Lee, D. Loomba, and K. S. Lackner, The search for stable, massive, elementary particles, Int. J. Mod. Phys. A 16, 2137 (2001).
  52. Z. T. Lu, R. J. Holt, P. Mueller, T. P. O’Connor, J. P. Schiffer, and L. B. Wang, Searches for stable strangelets in ordinary matter: Overview and a recent example, Nucl. Phys. A754, 361 (2005).
  53. S. Burdin, M. Fairbairn, P. Mermod, D. Milstead, J. Pinfold, T. Sloan, and W. Taylor, Non-collider searches for stable massive particles, Phys. Rep. 582, 1 (2015).
  54. N. Arkani-Hamed and S. Dimopoulos, Supersymmetric unification without low energy supersymmetry and signatures for fine-tuning at the LHC, J. High Energy Phys. 06 (2005) 073.
  55. G. F. Giudice and A. Romanino, Split supersymmetry, Nucl. Phys. B699, 65 (2004); B706, 487(E) (2005).
  56. J. D. Wells, Implications of supersymmetry breaking with a little hierarchy between gauginos and scalars, in 11th International Conference on Supersymmetry and the Unification of Fundamental Interactions (2003), arXiv:hep-ph/0306127.
  57. S. Dimopoulos and H. Georgi, Softly broken supersymmetry and SU(5), Nucl. Phys. B193, 150 (1981).
  58. S. Dimopoulos, S. Raby, and F. Wilczek, Supersymmetry and the scale of unification, Phys. Rev. D 24, 1681 (1981).
  59. W. J. Marciano and G. Senjanovic, Predictions of supersymmetric grand unified theories, Phys. Rev. D 25, 3092 (1982).
  60. M. B. Einhorn and D. R. T. Jones, The weak mixing angle and unification mass in supersymmetric SU(5), Nucl. Phys. B196, 475 (1982).
  61. L. E. Ibanez and G. G. Ross, Low-energy predictions in supersymmetric grand unified theories, Phys. Lett. 105B, 439 (1981).
  62. N. Sakai, Naturalness in supersymmetric guts, Z. Phys. C 11, 153 (1981).
  63. P. Langacker and N. Polonsky, The strong coupling, unification, and recent data, Phys. Rev. D 52, 3081 (1995).
  64. J. Ellis, J. Hagelin, D. Nanopoulos, K. Olive, and M. Srednicki, Supersymmetric relics from the big bang, Nucl. Phys. B238, 453 (1984).
  65. G. Jungman, M. Kamionkowski, and K. Griest, Supersymmetric dark matter, Phys. Rep. 267, 195 (1996).
  66. R. Krall and M. Reece, Last electroweak WIMP standing: Pseudo-Dirac Higgsino status and compact stars as future probes, Chin. Phys. C 42, 043105 (2018).
  67. P. W. Graham, H. Ramani, and Samuel S. Y. Wong, Enhancing direct detection of Higgsino dark matter, Phys. Rev. D 111, 055030 (2025).
  68. S. Abe, T. Inada, E. Moulin, N. L. Rodd, B. R. Safdi, and W. L. Xu, Discovering the Higgsino at CTAO-North within the decade, Phys. Rev. D 114, 023052 (2026).
  69. M. Toharia and J. D. Wells, Gluino decays with heavier scalar superpartners, J. High Energy Phys. 02 (2006) 015.
  70. P. Gambino, G. F. Giudice, and P. Slavich, Gluino decays in split supersymmetry, Nucl. Phys. B726, 35 (2005).
  71. A. Arvanitaki, N. Craig, S. Dimopoulos, and G. Villadoro, Mini-split, J. High Energy Phys. 02 (2012) 126.
  72. N. Arkani-Hamed, A. Gupta, D. E. Kaplan, N. Weiner, and T. Zorawski, Simply unnatural supersymmetry, arXiv:1212.6971.
  73. A. Arvanitaki, C. Davis, P. W. Graham, A. Pierce, and J. G. Wacker, Limits on split supersymmetry from gluino cosmology, Phys. Rev. D 72, 075011 (2005).
  74. M. Sher and Y. Yuan, Cosmological bounds on the lifetime of a fourth generation charged lepton, Phys. Lett. B 285, 336 (1992).
  75. P. H. Frampton, P. Q. Hung, and M. Sher, Quarks and leptons beyond the third generation, Phys. Rep. 330, 263 (2000).
  76. C. Gross, A. Mitridate, M. Redi, J. Smirnov, and A. Strumia, Cosmological abundance of colored relics, Phys. Rev. D 99, 016024 (2019).
  77. S. Hannestad, What is the lowest possible reheating temperature?, Phys. Rev. D 70, 043506 (2004).
  78. V. De Luca, A. Mitridate, M. Redi, J. Smirnov, and A. Strumia, Colored dark matter, Phys. Rev. D 97, 115024 (2018).
  79. G. Aad et al. (ATLAS Collaboration), The ATLAS experiment at the CERN large hadron collider: A description of the detector configuration for Run 3, J. Instrum. 19, P05063 (2024).
  80. J. Alwall, R. Frederix, S. Frixione, V. Hirschi, F. Maltoni, O. Mattelaer, H. S. Shao, T. Stelzer, P. Torrielli, and M. Zaro, The automated computation of tree-level and next-to-leading order differential cross sections, and their matching to parton shower simulations, J. High Energy Phys. 07 (2014) 079.
  81. B. C. Allanach et al., SUSY Les Houches accord 2, Comput. Phys. Commun. 180, 8 (2009).
  82. W. Beenakker, C. Borschensky, M. Krämer, A. Kulesza, E. Laenen, J. Mamužić, and L. M. Valero, NNLL-fast 2.0: Coloured sparticle production at the LHC run 3 with S=13.6  TeV, SciPost Phys. Core 7, 072 (2024).
  83. W. Beenakker, C. Borschensky, M. Krämer, A. Kulesza, and E. Laenen, NNLL-fast: Predictions for coloured supersymmetric particle production at the LHC with threshold and Coulomb resummation, J. High Energy Phys. 12 (2016) 133.
  84. A. Sommerfeld, Über die beugung und bremsung der elektronen, Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) (4th series) 403, 257 (1931).
  85. A. I. Akhiezer and V. B. Berestetskii, Quantum Electrodynamics, Interscience Monographs and Texts in Physics and Astronomy (Interscience Publishers, New York, 1965).
  86. J. S. Schwinger, Particles, Sources and Fields (Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1973), Vol. 2.
  87. H. Baer, K. Cheung, and J. F. Gunion, A heavy gluino as the lightest supersymmetric particle, Phys. Rev. D 59, 075002 (1999).
  88. A. Kulesza and L. Motyka, Threshold resummation for squark-antisquark and gluino-pair production at the LHC, Phys. Rev. Lett. 102, 111802 (2009).
  89. W. Beenakker, C. Borschensky, M. Krämer, A. Kulesza, and E. Laenen, NNLL-fast: Predictions for coloured supersymmetric particle production at the LHC with threshold and Coulomb resummation, J. High Energy Phys. 12 (2016) 133.
  90. W. Beenakker, R. Hopker, M. Spira, and P. M. Zerwas, Squark and gluino production at hadron colliders, Nucl. Phys. B492, 51 (1997).
  91. A. Buckley et al., General-purpose event generators for LHC physics, Phys. Rep. 504, 145 (2011).
  92. D. E. Groom (The Particle Data Group), Atomic and nuclear properties of materials, https://pdg.lbl.gov/2022/AtomicNuclearProperties/ (2022), part of the 2022 Review of Particle Physics.
  93. ATLAS Collaboration, Generation and simulation of r-hadrons in the ATLAS experiment, ATL-PHYS-PUB-2019-019, 2019.
  94. S. Navas et al. (Particle Data Group Collaboration), Passage of Particles Through Matter in Review of Particle Physics, Phys. Rev. D 110, 030001 (2024).
  95. J. H. Hubbell and S. M. Seltzer, Tables of x-ray mass attenuation coefficients and mass energy-absorption coefficients 1 keV to 20 MeV for elements z=1 to 92 and 48 additional substances of dosimetric interest, NIST Standard Reference Database 126, NIST Interagency/Internal Report 5632 (1995).
  96. E. Fermi and E. Teller, The capture of negative mesotrons in matter, Phys. Rev. 72, 399 (1947).
  97. B. Povh, K. Rith, C. Scholz, and F. Zetsche, The structure of nuclei, in Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1995), pp. 243–282.
  98. M. Aleksa and M. Diemoz, Discussion on the electromagnetic calorimeters of ATLAS and CMS, Technical Report, CERN, Geneva, 2013.
  99. N. Nikiforou (ATLAS Collaboration), Performance of the ATLAS liquid argon calorimeter after three years of LHC operation and plans for a future upgrade, in 3rd International Conference on Advancements in Nuclear Instrumentation Measurement Methods and their Applications (2013), arXiv:1306.6756.
  100. A. Yamamoto, Y. Makida, R. Ruber, Y. Doi, T. Haruyama, F. Haug, H. ten Kate, M. Kawai, T. Kondo, Y. Kondo, J. Metselaar, S. Mizumaki, G. Olesen, O. Pavlov, S. Ravat, E. Sbrissa, K. Tanaka, T. Taylor, and H. Yamaoka, The atlas central solenoid, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res., Sect. A 584, 53 (2008).
  101. G. Aad et al. (ATLAS Collaboration), The ATLAS experiment at the CERN large hadron collider, J. Instrum. 3, S08003.
  102. J. del Peso, Design and performance of the ATLAS LAr calorimeter, Report No. ATL-LARG-PROC-2011-003, ATL-COM-LARG-2011-014 (2011), https://cds.cern.ch/record/1385899.
  103. J. L. Feng and B. T. Smith, Slepton trapping at the CERN Large Hadron Collider and the International Linear Collider, Phys. Rev. D 71, 015004 (2005).
  104. W. G. Niewiem, D. Mergelkuhl, and J.-C. Gayde, Deformation measurement the ATLAS cavern at CERN, Technical Report, CERN, Geneva, 2022.
  105. ATLAS Collaboration, Interactive web pages for radiation environment exploration of ATLAS, Report No. ATL-SOFT-PUB-2020-003 (2020), https://cds.cern.ch/record/2742378.
  106. ATLAS Collaboration, Radiation environment of Atlas: Interactive web maps, https://twiki.cern.ch/twiki/pub/AtlasPublic/RadiationSimulationPublicResults/WebRadMaps_Full_R2_public.html.
  107. L. Evans and P. Bryant, LHC machine, J. Instrum. 3, S08001 (2008).
  108. G. E. Smith and R. Seth, Perrin’s Brownian Motion Experiments, in Brownian Motion and Molecular Reality, (Oxford University Press, New York, 2020).
  109. N. N. Greenwood and A. Earnshaw, Chemistry of the Elements, 2nd ed. (Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, England, 1997).
  110. M. Ionescu, B. Winton, D. Wexler, R. Siegele, A. Deslantes, E. Stelcer, A. Atanacio, and D. Cohen, Enhanced biocompatibility of PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane) polymer films by ion irradiation, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res., Sect. B 273, 161 (2012).
  111. Drawell Analytical, The role of refrigerated centrifuges in cryogenic and ultra-low temperature centrifugation (2024).
  112. R. G. Scurlock and D. B. Utton, λ-Transition between normal and superfluid 4He in the high-speed rotating frame, Nature (London) 272, 148 (1978).
  113. A. S. Krass, P. Boskma, B. Elzen, and W. A. Smit, Uranium Enrichment and Nuclear Weapon Proliferation (Taylor & Francis, London, 1983).
  114. Eppendorf, Centrifuge cr30nx—high-speed centrifuge, https://www.eppendorf.com/us-en/Products/Centrifugation/High-Speed-Centrifuges/Centrifuge-CR30NX-p-PF-923312, accessed: 2024-12-08.
  115. Eppendorf representative (private communication).
  116. Andreas Hettich GmbH & Co. KG, Microliter centrifuges—precision for small samples, https://www.hettichlab.com/products/centrifuges/microliter-centrifuges/ (accessed: 2025-01-17).
  117. W. R. Leo, Techniques for nuclear and particle physics experiments (1987), https://www.osti.gov/biblio/5711102.
  118. Christoph Borschensky, Anna Kulesza, and Laura Moreno Valero,SUSY cross sections at 13.6 TeV for gluon-gluon (2024), https://twiki.cern.ch/twiki/bin/view/LHCPhysics/SUSYCrossSections13x6TeVgluglu.
  119. G. Aad et al. (ATLAS Collaboration), Search for heavy long-lived multi-charged particles in the full LHC Run 2 pp collision data at s=13 TeV using the ATLAS detector, Phys. Lett. B 847, 138316 (2023).
  120. A. Freitas, A. von Manteuffel, and P. M. Zerwas, Slepton production at e+e− and e−e− linear colliders, Eur. Phys. J. C 34, 487 (2004).
  121. M. Battaglia et al., Run scenarios for the linear collider, eConf C 010630, E3006 (2001).
  122. W. Beenakker, M. Kramer, T. Plehn, M. Spira, and P. M. Zerwas, Stop production at hadron colliders, Nucl. Phys. B515, 3 (1998).
  123. ATLAS Collaboration, Search for supersymmetry at the high luminosity LHC with the ATLAS experiment, Report No. ATL-PHYS-PUB-2014-010 (2014), https://cds.cern.ch/record/1735031.
  124. S. Navas et al. (Particle Data Group Collaboration), QCD in Review of particle physics, Phys. Rev. D 110, 030001 (2024).
  125. S. El Hedri, A. Kaminska, and M. de Vries, A Sommerfeld toolbox for colored dark sectors, Eur. Phys. J. C 77, 622 (2017).
  126. International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU. Stopping Powers and Ranges for Protons and Alpha Particles, ICRU Report 49 (International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements, Bethesda, MD, USA, 1993).
  127. L. Pitaevskii and E. Lifshitz, Physical Kinetics: Volume 10 (Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, England, 2012).
  128. C. Yu, Chapter 3: Diffusion (2024), https://ps.uci.edu/~cyu/p51A/LectureNotes/Chapter3/Chapter3_Diffusion.pdf.
  129. E. M. Purcell and D. J. Morin, Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd ed. (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 2013), Chap. 4.
  130. J. Mazumdar, An Introduction to Mathematical Physiology and Biology, 2nd ed., Cambridge Studies in Mathematical Biology (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 1999), Chap. 2.
  131. M. Kardar, Statistical Physics of Fields (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 2007), Chap. 9.
  132. H.-D. Betz, Charge states and charge-changing cross sections of fast heavy ions penetrating through gaseous and solid media, Rev. Mod. Phys. 44, 465 (1972).
  133. E. R. Micelotta, A. P. Jones, and A. G. G. M. Tielens, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon processing by cosmic rays, Astron. Astrophys. 526, A52 (2011).
  134. T. Matsumoto, J. Matsuda, I. Yatsevich, and M. Ozima, Noble gas mass spectrometry with a compressor driven recycling system for improved sensitivity, Geochemical Journal 44, 167 (2010).
  135. B. Bains, A beginner’s guide to mass spectrometry: Types of ionization techniques (2023), aCD/Labs Blog.
  136. D. M. Paardekooper, J. B. Bossa, and H. Linnartz, Laser desorption time-of-flight mass spectrometry of vacuum UV photo-processed methanol ice, Astron. Astrophys. 592, A67 (2016).
  137. J. W. P. Sr. and G. A. Lyzenga, Do transuranic elements such as plutonium ever occur naturally? https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-transuranic-elements-s/.
  138. R. Liu, Q. Li, and L. M. Smith, Detection of large ions in time-of-flight mass spectrometry: Effects of ion mass and acceleration voltage on microchannel plate detector response, J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom. 25, 1374 (2014).
  139. S. W. J. Scully, J. A. Wyer, V. Senthil, M. B. Shah, and E. C. Montenegro, Autodissociation of doubly charged water molecules, Phys. Rev. A 73, 040701(R) (2006).
  140. P. Ludwig, T. Faestermann, G. Korschinek, G. Rugel, I. Dillmann, L. Fimiani, S. Bishop, and P. Kumar, Search for superheavy elements with 292≤A≤310 in nature with accelerator mass spectrometry, Phys. Rev. C 85, 024315 (2012).
  141. W. H. Benner, M. J. Bogan, U. Rohner, S. Boutet, B. Woods, and M. Frank, Non-destructive characterization and alignment of aerodynamically focused particle beams using single particle charge detection, J. Aerosol Sci. 39, 917 (2008).

Outline

Information

Phys. Rev. D 114, 075036– Published 27 October, 2026
  • Received 7 January 2026
  • Accepted 9 September 2026
Crossmark - Check for updates button
Creative Commons Logo

Published by the American Physical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article’s title, journal citation, and DOI. Funded by SCOAP3.

Published by the American Physical Society

Sign In to Your Journals Account

Filter

Filter

Article Lookup

Enter a citation