We show that the thermal dissociation of icosahedral viral capsids can be interpreted in terms of a two-dimensional phase transition. The approach provides a useful framework to get direct insights into the interactions at work between viral components. We devise a mean-field lattice model that relates the melting temperature to subunit attractive energy, effective charge, and chemical potential. Through fluorescence thermal shift assay on a plant viral system, we illustrate how the model gives access to the interaction parameters for empty and loaded viral capsids in various ionic conditions. This work should help construct physical models accounting for the assembly and disassembly mechanisms of viruses, with possible fallout in the development of therapeutic inhibitors.

Incorporation of gain media in plasmonic nanostructures can give the possibility to compensate for high Ohmic losses in the metal and design truly nanoscale optical components for diverse applications ranging from biosensing to on-chip data communication. However, the process of stimulated emission in the gain medium is inevitably accompanied by spontaneous emission. This spontaneous emission greatly impacts the performance characteristics of deep-subwavelength active plasmonic devices and casts doubt on their practical use. Here we develop a theoretical framework to evaluate the influence of spontaneous emission, which can be applied to waveguide structures of any shape and level of mode confinement. In contrast to the previously developed theories, we take into account that the spectrum of spontaneous emission can be very broad and nonuniform, which is typical for deep-subwavelength structures, where a high optical gain (approximately $1000{\mathrm{cm}}^{-1}$) in the active medium is required to compensate for strong absorption in the metal. We also present a detailed study of the spontaneous emission noise in metal-semiconductor active plasmonic nanowaveguides and demonstrate that by using both optical and electrical filtering techniques, it is possible to decrease the noise to a level sufficient for practical applications at telecom and midinfrared wavelengths.

Swelling is a volumetric-growth process in which a porous material expands by spontaneous imbibition of additional pore fluid. Swelling is distinct from other growth processes in that it is inherently poromechanical: local expansion of the pore structure requires that additional fluid be drawn from elsewhere in the material, or into the material from across the boundaries. Here, we study the swelling and subsequent drying of a sphere of hydrogel. We develop a dynamic model based on large-deformation poromechanics and the theory of ideal elastomeric gels, and we compare the predictions of this model with a series of experiments performed with polyacrylamide spheres. We use the model and the experiments to study the complex internal dynamics of swelling and drying, and to highlight the fundamentally transient nature of these strikingly different processes. Although we assume spherical symmetry, the model also provides insight into the transient patterns that form and then vanish during swelling as well as the risk of fracture during drying.

We demonstrate a 12-quantum-dot device fabricated on an undoped Si/SiGe heterostructure as a proof of concept for a scalable, linear gate architecture for semiconductor quantum dots. The device consists of nine quantum dots in a linear array and three single-quantum-dot charge sensors. We show reproducible single-quantum-dot charging and orbital energies, with standard deviations less than 20% relative to the mean across the nine-dot array. The single-quantum-dot charge sensors have a charge sensitivity of $8.2\times {10}^{-4}e/\sqrt{\mathrm{Hz}}$ and allow for the investigation of real-time charge dynamics. As a demonstration of the versatility of this device, we use single-shot readout to measure the spin-relaxation time $T_1=170\mathrm{ms}$ at a magnetic field $B=1\mathrm{T}$. By reconfiguring the device, we form two capacitively coupled double quantum dots and extract a mutual charging energy of $200\mu \mathrm{eV}$, which indicates that 50-GHz two-qubit gate-operation speeds are feasible.

This paper investigates how faithfully an electrospray mass spectrometer reports the order of monomers of a single biopolymer in the context of two sequencing strategies. We develop a simplified one-dimensional theoretical model of the dynamics of Brownian particles in the Taylor cone of an electropray source, where free monomers drift towards the apex in an elongational force gradient. The likelihood that neighboring particles will invert their order decreases near the apex because the strength of the force gradient increases. Neighboring monomers on a stretched biopolymer should be cleaved by photofragmentation within about 3 nm of the apex if they are to enter the mass spectrometer in sequence with 95% probability under typical experimental conditions. Alternatively, if the monomers are cleaved processively at milliseconds-long intervals by an enzyme, their sequence will be faithfully reported with 95% confidence if the enzyme is within about 117 nm of the apex.

We experimentally and theoretically investigate injection locking of quantum-dot microlasers in the regime of cavity quantum electrodynamics. We observe frequency locking and phase locking where cavity-enhanced spontaneous emission enables simultaneous stable oscillation at the master frequency and at the solitary frequency of the slave microlaser. Measurements of the second-order autocorrelation function prove this simultaneous presence of both master and slavelike emission, where the former has coherent character with $g^{(2)}(0)=1$, while the latter has thermal character with $g^{(2)}(0)=2$. Semiclassical rate equations explain this peculiar behavior by cavity-enhanced spontaneous emission and a low number of photons in the laser mode.

Quantum computing architectures are on the verge of scalability, a key requirement for the implementation of a universal quantum computer. The next stage in this quest is the realization of quantum error-correction codes, which will mitigate the impact of faulty quantum information on a quantum computer. Architectures with ten or more quantum bits (qubits) have been realized using trapped ions and superconducting circuits. While these implementations are potentially scalable, true scalability will require systems engineering to combine quantum and classical hardware. One technology demanding imminent efforts is the realization of a suitable wiring method for the control and the measurement of a large number of qubits. In this work, we introduce an interconnect solution for solid-state qubits: the quantum socket. The quantum socket fully exploits the third dimension to connect classical electronics to qubits with higher density and better performance than two-dimensional methods based on wire bonding. The quantum socket is based on spring-mounted microwires—the three-dimensional wires—that push directly on a microfabricated chip, making electrical contact. A small wire cross section (approximately 1 mm), nearly nonmagnetic components, and functionality at low temperatures make the quantum socket ideal for operating solid-state qubits. The wires have a coaxial geometry and operate over a frequency range from dc to 8 GHz, with a contact resistance of approximately $150\mathrm{m}\mathrm{\Omega }$, an impedance mismatch of approximately $10\mathrm{\Omega }$, and minimal cross talk. As a proof of principle, we fabricate and use a quantum socket to measure high-quality superconducting resonators at a temperature of approximately 10 mK. Quantum error-correction codes such as the surface code will largely benefit from the quantum socket, which will make it possible to address qubits located on a two-dimensional lattice. The present implementation of the socket could be readily extended to accommodate a quantum processor with a ($10\times 10$)-qubit lattice, which would allow for the realization of a simple quantum memory.

Magnetic flux noise is a dominant source of dephasing and energy relaxation in superconducting qubits. The noise power spectral density varies with frequency as $1/f^{\alpha }$, with $\alpha \lesssim 1$, and spans 13 orders of magnitude. Recent work indicates that the noise is from unpaired magnetic defects on the surfaces of the superconducting devices. Here, we demonstrate that adsorbed molecular ${\mathrm{O}}_2$ is the dominant contributor to magnetism in superconducting thin films. We show that this magnetism can be reduced by appropriate surface treatment or improvement in the sample vacuum environment. We observe a suppression of static spin susceptibility by more than an order of magnitude and a suppression of $1/f$ magnetic flux noise power spectral density of up to a factor of 5. These advances open the door to the realization of superconducting qubits with improved quantum coherence.

We study the formation and the dynamics of dipolar rings composed by microscopic ferromagnetic ellipsoids, which self-assemble in water by switching the direction of the applied field. We show how to manipulate these fragile structures and control their shape via the application of external static and oscillating magnetic fields. We introduce a theoretical framework which describes the ring deformation under an applied field, allowing us to understand the underlying physical mechanism. Our microscopic rings are finally used to capture, entrap, and later release a biological cell via a magnetic command, i.e., performing a simple operation which can be implemented in other microfluidic devices which make use of ferromagnetic particles.

The blocking of fine-capillary tubes used as flow impedances in ${}^4\mathrm{He}$ evaporation cryostats to achieve temperatures below 4.2 K is generally attributed to nitrogen or air impurities entering these tubes from the main bath. The failure of even the most rigorous low-temperature laboratory best practices aimed at eliminating the problem by maintaining the cleanliness of the helium bath and preventing impurities from entering the capillary tubes suggests that a different cause is responsible for the inexplicable reduction of impedance flow. Many low-temperature research laboratories around the world have suffered this nuisance at a considerable financial cost due to the fact that the affected systems have to be warmed to room temperature in order to recover their normal low-temperature operation performance. Here, we propose an underlying physical mechanism responsible for the blockages based upon the freezing of molecular ${\mathrm{H}}_2$ traces present in the liquid-helium bath. Solid ${\mathrm{H}}_2$ accumulates at the impedance low-pressure side, and, after some time, it produces a total impedance blockage. The presence of ${\mathrm{H}}_2$ traces is unavoidable due its occurrence in the natural gas wells where helium is harvested, forcing gas suppliers to specify a lower bound for impurity levels at about 100 ppb even in high-grade helium. In this paper, we present a simple apparatus to detect hydrogen traces present in liquid helium and easily check the quality of the liquid. Finally, we propose a solution to eliminate the hydrogen impurities in small- and large-scale helium recovery plants. The solution has been implemented in several laboratories that previously experienced a chronic occurrence of blocking, eliminating similar occurrences for more than one year.

A switch capable of routing microwave signals at cryogenic temperatures is a desirable component for state-of-the-art experiments in many fields of applied physics, including but not limited to quantum-information processing, communication, and basic research in engineered quantum systems. Conventional mechanical switches provide low insertion loss but disturb operation of dilution cryostats and the associated experiments by heat dissipation. Switches based on semiconductors or microelectromechanical systems have a lower thermal budget but are not readily integrated with current superconducting circuits. Here we design and test an on-chip switch built by combining tunable transmission-line resonators with microwave beam splitters. The device is superconducting and as such dissipates a negligible amount of heat. It is compatible with current superconducting circuit fabrication techniques, operates with a bandwidth exceeding 100 MHz, is capable of handling photon fluxes on the order of $10^5\mu {\mathrm{s}}^{-1}$, equivalent to powers exceeding $-90\mathrm{dBm}$, and can be switched within approximately 6–8 ns. We successfully demonstrate operation of the device in the quantum regime by integrating it on a chip with a single-photon source and using it to route nonclassical itinerant microwave fields at the single-photon level.

The on-demand generation of viscous microdroplets to print functional or biological materials remains challenging using conventional inkjet-printing methods, mainly due to aggregation and clogging issues. In an effort to overcome these limitations, we implement a jetting method to print viscous microdroplets by laser-induced shockwaves. We experimentally investigate the dependence of the jetting regimes and the droplet size on the laser-pulse energy and on the inks’ physical properties. The range of printable liquids with our device is significantly extended compared to conventional inkjet printers’s performances. In addition, the laser-induced flow-focusing phenomenon allows us to controllably generate viscous microdroplets up to 210 mPa s with a diameter smaller than the nozzle from which they originated ($200\mu \mathrm{m}$). Inks containing proteins are printed without altering their functional properties, thus demonstrating that this jetting technique is potentially suitable for bioprinting.

We examine electric power generation from Earth’s rotation through its own nonrotating magnetic field (that component of the field symmetric about Earth’s rotation axis). There is a simple general proof that this is impossible. However, we identify a loophole in that proof and show that voltage can be continuously generated in a low-magnetic-Reynolds-number conductor rotating with Earth, provided magnetically permeable material is used to ensure $\text{curl}(\mathbf{v}\times {\mathbf{B}}_{\mathbf{0}})\ne \mathbf{0}$ within the conductor, where ${\mathbf{B}}_{\mathbf{0}}$ derives from the axially symmetric component of Earth’s magnetic flux density, and $\mathbf{v}$ is Earth’s rotation velocity at the conductor’s location. We solve the relevant equations for one laboratory realization, and from this solution, we predict the voltage magnitude and sign dependence on system dimensions and orientation relative to Earth’s rotation. The effect, which would be available nearly globally with no intermittency, requires testing and further examination to see if it can be scaled to practical emission-free power generation.

A different paradigm is proposed to selectively manipulate and transport small engineered chiral particles and discriminate different enantiomers using unstructured chiral light. It is theoretically shown that the response of a chiral metamaterial particle may be tailored to enable an optical conveyor-belt operation with no optical traps, such that for a fixed incident light helicity the nanoparticle is either steadily pushed towards the direction of the photon flow or steadily pulled against the photon flow, independent of its position. Our findings create distinct opportunities for unconventional optical manipulations of tailored nanoparticles and may have applications in sorting racemic mixtures of artificial chiral molecules and in particle delivery.

Nuclear spin-lattice relaxation times are measured on copper using magnetic-resonance force microscopy performed at temperatures down to 42 mK. The low temperature is verified by comparison with the Korringa relation. Measuring spin-lattice relaxation times locally at very low temperatures opens up the possibility to measure the magnetic properties of inhomogeneous electron systems realized in oxide interfaces, topological insulators, and other strongly correlated electron systems such as high-$T_c$ superconductors.

One of the aspirations for artificial microswimmers is their application in noninvasive medicine. For any practical use, adequate mechanisms enabling control of multiple artificial swimmers will be of paramount importance. Here we theoretically propose a multihelical, freely jointed motor as a selective control mechanism. We show that the nonlinear step-out behavior of a magnetized helix driven by a rotating magnetic field can be exploited when used in conjunction with other helices to obtain a velocity profile that is non-negligible only within a chosen interval of operating frequencies. Specifically, the force balance between the competing opposite-handed helices is tuned to give no net motion at low frequencies (tug-of-war), while in the middle-frequency range, the magnitude and, potentially, the sign of the swimming velocity can be adjusted by varying the driving frequency. We illustrate this idea on a two-helix system and demonstrate how to generalize to $N$ helices, both numerically and theoretically. We then explain how to solve the inverse problem and design an artificial swimmer with an arbitrarily complex velocity vs frequency relationship. We finish by discussing potential experimental implementation.

We present an alternative version of transformation optics that allows us to mold the flow of light without rotating or scaling the electromagnetic fields. The resulting media experience unusual force densities, are nonreciprocal, and exhibit loss or gain. Because of these singular features, a variety of effects and devices unreachable by standard transformation optics can be achieved, including reflectionless light compression, optical modes with arbitrary in-plane polarization, and special isolators.

Placing a nanomechanical object in the evanescent near field of a high-$Q$ optical microcavity gives access to strong gradient forces and quantum-limited displacement readout, offering an attractive platform for both precision sensing technology and basic quantum optics research. Robustly implementing this platform is challenging, however, as it requires integrating optically smooth surfaces separated by $\lesssim \lambda /10$. Here we describe an exceptionally high-cooperativity, single-chip optonanomechanical transducer based on a high-stress ${\mathrm{Si}}_3{\mathrm{N}}_4$ nanobeam monolithically integrated into the evanescent near field of ${\mathrm{SiO}}_2$ microdisk cavity. Employing a vertical integration technique based on planarized sacrificial layers, we realize beam-disk gaps as little as 25 nm while maintaining mechanical $Qf>{10}^{12}\mathrm{Hz}$ and intrinsic optical $Q\sim {10}^7$. The combination of low loss, small gap, and parallel-plane geometry results in radio-frequency flexural modes with vacuum optomechanical coupling rates of 100 kHz, single-photon cooperativities in excess of unity, and large zero-point frequency (displacement) noise amplitudes of $10\mathrm{kHz}(\mathrm{fm})/\surd \mathrm{Hz}$. In conjunction with the high power-handling capacity of ${\mathrm{SiO}}_2$ and low extraneous substrate noise, the transducer performs particularly well as a sensor, with recent deployment in a 4-K cryostat realizing a displacement imprecision 40 dB below that at the standard quantum limit (SQL) and an imprecision-backaction product $<5\hslash$ [Wilson et al., Nature (London) 524, 325 (2015)]. In this report, we provide a comprehensive description of device design, fabrication, and characterization, with an emphasis on extending Heisenberg-limited readout to room temperature. Towards this end, we describe a room-temperature experiment in which a displacement imprecision 32 dB below that at the SQL and an imprecision-backaction product $<60\hslash$ is achieved. Our results extend the outlook for measurement-based quantum control of nanomechanical oscillators and suggest an alternative platform for functionally integrated “hybrid” quantum optomechanics.

We propose and demonstrate a physical platform for the realization of integrated photonic memories based on laser-written waveguides in rare-earth-doped crystals. Using femtosecond-laser micromachining, we fabricate waveguides in ${\mathrm{Pr}}^{3+}:{\mathrm{Y}}_2{\mathrm{SiO}}_5$ crystal. We demonstrate that the waveguide inscription does not affect the coherence properties of the material and that the light confinement in the waveguide increases the interaction with the active ions by a factor of 6. We also demonstrate that analogous to the bulk crystals, we can operate the optical pumping protocols necessary to prepare the population in atomic-frequency combs that we use to demonstrate light storage in excited and spin states of the Praseodymium ions. Our results represent a realization of laser-written waveguides in a ${\mathrm{Pr}}^{3+}:{\mathrm{Y}}_2{\mathrm{SiO}}_5$ crystal and an implementation of an integrated on-demand spin-wave optical memory. They open perspectives for integrated quantum memories.

We explore broadband and omnidirectional midinfrared rectification based on nanopatterned hyperbolic metamaterials, composed of two dissimilar metals separated by an ultrathin dielectric layer. The exotic slow-light modes supported by such periodically trenched hyperbolic metamaterials efficiently trap incident radiation in massively parallel metal-insulator-metal tunnel junctions producing ultrafast infrared rectification via photon-assisted tunneling. This leads to a highly efficient photon-to-electron transduction with obtained photocurrent orders of magnitude larger than conventional lumped-element devices, such as nanorectennas and point-contact rectifiers. Our results promise an impact on infrared energy harvesters and plasmonic photodetectors.