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Heat-dissipation decomposition and free-energy generation in a nonequilibrium dot with multiple electron states

Chloe Salhani, Kensaku Chida, Takase Shimizu, and Toshiaki Hayashi

Katsuhiko Nishiguchi*

  • *Contact author: nishiguchi-katsuhiko-kr@ynu.ac.jp
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Phys. Rev. Research 8, 023209 – Published 26 May, 2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/947j-vvk2

Abstract

We experimentally demonstrate the decomposition of heat dissipation during free-energy generation in a nanometer-scale dot transitioning to a nonequilibrium steady state via single-electron counting statistics. An alternating-current signal driving a reservoir that injects multiple electrons into the dot makes it nonequilibrium, leading to free-energy generation, heat dissipation, and Shannon-entropy production. By analyzing the time-domain probability distributions of multielectron states of the dot, we quantitatively decompose the heat dissipation into housekeeping and excess heats, thereby revealing their direct correlation with free-energy generation. This correlation suggests that the ratio of the generated free energy to the work applied to the dot can potentially reach 0.5 under far-from-equilibrium conditions induced by a large signal, while an efficiency of 0.25 was experimentally achieved. These results establish a quantitative link between decomposed heat dissipation and free-energy generation in a multielectron stochastic system, providing a thermodynamic framework for nonequilibrium electronic devices.

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Phys. Rev. Research 8, 023209– Published 26 May, 2026
  • Received 28 January 2025
  • Revised 16 December 2025
  • Accepted 25 April 2026
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Published by the American Physical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article's title, journal citation, and DOI.

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