- Physical Review Journals
All JournalsPhysics Magazine

Physical Review Research

Reuse & Permissions

It is not necessary to obtain permission to reuse this article or its components as it is available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. This license permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided attribution to the author(s) and the published article's title, journal citation, and DOI are maintained. Please note that some figures may have been included with permission from other third parties. It is your responsibility to obtain the proper permission from the rights holder directly for these figures.

Export citation

Export citation

Choose format for download:

Download Citation
  • Open Access

Quasi-monocrystalline silicon for low-noise end mirrors in cryogenic gravitational-wave detectors

Frank M. Kiessling1, Peter G. Murray2, Maya Kinley-Hanlon2, Iryna Buchovska1, Torunn K. Ervik1,3, Victoria Graham2, Jim Hough2, Ross Johnston2, Mike Pietsch1 et al.

Sheila Rowan2, Roman Schnabel4, Simon C. Tait2, Jessica Steinlechner2,4,5,6, and Iain W. Martin2,*

  • 1Leibniz-Institut für Kristallzüchtung, Max-Born-Str. 2, D-12489 Berlin, Germany
  • 2SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom
  • 3National Institute of Occupational Health, Gydas vei 8, N-0363 Oslo, Norway
  • 4Institut für Laserphysik und Zentrum für Optische Quantentechnologien, Universität Hamburg, Luruper Chaussee 149, D-22761 Hamburg, Germany
  • 5Maastricht University, Department of Gravitational Waves and Fundamental Physics, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, Netherlands
  • 6Nikhef, National Institute for Subatomic Physics, Science Park 105, 1098 XG Amsterdam, Netherlands

  • *Corresponding author: iain.martin@glasgow.ac.uk
PDF

Phys. Rev. Research 4, 043043 – Published 18 October, 2022

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.4.043043

Abstract

Mirrors made of silicon have been proposed for use in future cryogenic gravitational-wave detectors, which will be significantly more sensitive than current room-temperature detectors. These mirrors are planned to have diameters of ≈50 cm and a mass of ≈200 kg. While single-crystalline float-zone silicon meets the requirements of low optical absorption and low mechanical loss, the production of this type of material is restricted to sizes much smaller than required. Here we present studies of silicon produced by directional solidification. This material can be grown as quasi-monocrystalline ingots in sizes larger than currently required. We present measurements of a low room-temperature and cryogenic mechanical loss comparable with float-zone silicon. While the optical absorption of our test sample is significantly higher than required, the low mechanical loss motivates research into further absorption reduction in the future. While it is unclear if material pure enough for the transmissive detector input mirrors can be achieved, an absorption level suitable for the highly reflective coated end mirrors seems realistic. Together with the potential to produce samples much larger than ≈50 cm, this material may be of great benefit for realizing silicon-based gravitational-wave detectors.

View figure in article

Physics Subject Headings (PhySH)

Article Text

References (39)

  1. B. P. Abbott, R. Abbott, T. D. Abbott, M. R. Abernathy, F. Acernese, K. Ackley, C. Adams, T. Adams, P. Addesso, R. X. Adhikari et al. (LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration), GW150914: The Advanced LIGO Detectors in the Era of First Discoveries, Phys. Rev. Lett. 116, 131103 (2016).
  2. F. Acernese et al., Advanced Virgo: A second-generation interferometric gravitational wave detector, Classical Quantum Gravity 32, 024001 (2015).
  3. B. P. Abbott, R. Abbott, T. D. Abbott, S. Abraham, F. Acernese, K. Ackley, C. Adams, R. X. Adhikari, V. B. Adya, C. Affeldt, (LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration) et al., GWTC-1: A Gravitational-Wave Transient Catalog of Compact Binary Mergers Observed by LIGO and Virgo during the First and Second Observing Runs, Phys. Rev. X 9, 031040 (2019).
  4. Y. Aso, Y. Michimura, K. Somiya, M. Ando, O. Miyakawa, T. Sekiguchi, D. Tatsumi, and H. Yamamoto (KAGRA Collaboration), Interferometer design of the KARGA gravitational wave detector, Phys. Rev. D 88, 043007 (2013).
  5. R. Abbott, T. D. Abbott, S. Abraham, F. Acernese, K. Ackley, A. Adams, C. Adams, R. X. Adhikari, V. B. Adya, C. Affeldt, (LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration) et al., GWTC-2: Compact Binary Coalescences Observed by LIGO and Virgo during the First Half of the Third Observing Run, Phys. Rev. X 11, 021053 (2021).
  6. LIGO Scientific Collaboration, Virgo Collaboration, and KAGRA Collaboration, GWTC-3: Compact binary coalescences observed by LIGO and Virgo during the second part of the third observing run, arXiv:2111.03606.
  7. G. M. Harry, A. M. Gretarsson, P. R. Saulson, S. E. Kittelberger, S. D. Penn, W. J. Startin, S. Rowan, M. M. Fejer, D. R. M. Crooks, G. Cagnoli, J. Hough, and N. Nakagawa, Thermal noise in interferometric gravitational wave detectors due to dielectric optical coatings, Classical Quantum Gravity 19, 897 (2002).
  8. M. E. Fine, H. van Duyne, and N. T. Kenney, Low-temperature internal friction and elasticity effects in vitreous silica, J. Appl. Phys. 25, 402 (1954).
  9. E. Hirose, D. Bajuk, G. Billingsley, T. Kajita, B. Kestner, N. Mio, M. Ohashi, B. Reichman, H. Yamamoto, and L. Zhang, Sapphire mirror for the KAGRA gravitational wave detector, Phys. Rev. D 89, 062003 (2014).
  10. R. X. Adhikari, K. Arai, A. F. Brooks, C. Wipf, O. Aguiar, P. Altin, B. Barr, L. Barsotti, R. Bassiri, A. Bell et al., A cryogenic silicon interferometer for gravitational-wave detection, Classical Quantum Gravity 37, 165003 (2020).
  11. ET Editorial Team, Design Report Update 2020 for the Einstein Telescope (2020), https://apps.et-gw.eu/tds/?content=3&r=17245.
  12. M. A. Green and M. J. Keevers, Optical properties of intrinsic silicon at 300 K, Prog. Photovoltaics 3, 189 (1995).
  13. J. Degallaix, R. Flaminio, D. Forest, M. Granata, C. Michel, L. Pinard, T. Bertrand, and G. Cagnoli, Bulk optical absorption of high resistivity silicon at 1550 nm, Opt. Lett. 38, 2047 (2013).
  14. R. R. Vardanyan, V. K. Dallakyan, U. Kerst, and C. Boit, Modeling free carrier absorption in silicon, J. Contemp. Phys. (Arm. Acad. Sci.) 47, 73 (2012).
  15. D. F. McGuigan, C. C. Lam, R. Q. Gram, A. W. Hoffman et al., Measurements of the mechanical Q of single-crystal silicon at low temperatures, J. Low Temp. Phys. 30, 621 (1978).
  16. W. von Ammon, FZ and CZ crystal growth: Cost driving factors and new perspectives, Phys. Status Solidi A 211, 2461 (2014).
  17. Z. Lu and S. Kimbel, Growth of 450 mm diameter semiconductor grade silicon crystals, J. Cryst. Growth 318, 193 (2011).
  18. Handbook of Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology, 2nd ed., edited by R. Doering and Y. Nishi (CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2008).
  19. Springer Handbook of Electronic and Photonic Materials, Springer Handbooks, edited by S. Kasap and P. Capper (Springer, Cham, 2017).
  20. I. Martin, A. Bell, J. Steinlechner, P. Murray, J. Hough, R. Schnabel, R. Robie, S. Rowan, S. Tait, A. Markosyan, M. Fejer, E. Gustafson, C. Wipf, and R. Adhikari, Development of silicon mirrors and coatings (2017), https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-G1700882/public.
  21. D. Linke, N. Dropka, F. M. Kiessling, M. König, J. Krause, R.-P. Lange, and D. Sontag, Characterization of a 75 kg multicrystalline Si ingot grown in a KRISTMAG®-type G2-sized directional solidification furnace, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 130, 652 (2014).
  22. K. Kutsukake, T. Abe, N. Usami, K. Fujiwara, K. Morishita, and K. Nakajima, Formation mechanism of twin boundaries during crystal growth of silicon, Scr. Mater. 65, 556 (2011).
  23. H. J. Möller, T. Kaden, S. Scholz, and S. Würzner, Improving solar grade silicon by controlling extended defect generation and foreign atom defect interactions, Appl. Phys. A: Mater. Sci. Process. 96, 207 (2009).
  24. F.-M. Kiessling, F. Büllesfeld, N. Dropka, Ch. Frank-Rotsch, M. Müller, and P. Rudolph, Characterization of mc-Si directionally solidified in travelling magnetic fields, J. Cryst. Growth 360, 81 (2012).
  25. E. Cesarini, M. Lorenzini, E. Campagna, F. Martelli, F. Piergiovanni, F. Vetrano, G. Losurdo, and G. Cagnoli, A “gentle” nodal suspension for measurements of the acoustic attenuation in materials, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 80, 053904 (2009).
  26. R. Nawrodt, A. Zimmer, T. Koettig, C. Schwarz, D. Heinert, M. Hudl, R. Neubert, M. Thürk, S. Nietzsche, W. Vodel, P. Seidel, and A. Tünnermann, High mechanical Q-factor measurements on silicon bulk samples, J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 122, 012008 (2008).
  27. Montana Instruments Cryostation s100; https://www.montanainstruments.com.
  28. A. Alexandrovski, M. Fejer, A. Markosian, and R. Route, Photothermal common-path interferometry (PCI): New developments, in Solid State Lasers XVIII: Technology and Devices, edited by W. A. Clarkson, N. Hodgson, and R. K. Shori, International Society for Optics and Photonics (SPIE, 2009), Vol. 7193, pp. 79–91.
  29. Stanford Photo-Thermal Solutions; www.stan-pts.com.
  30. Handbook of Silicon Photonics, edited by Laurent Vivien and Lorenzo Pavesi (CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2013).
  31. F. Durand and J. C. Duby, Carbon solubility in solid and liquid silicon—a review with reference to eutectic equilibrium, J. Phase Equilib. 20, 61 (1999).
  32. B. Berger, N. Schüler, S. Anger, B. Gründig-Wendrock, J. R. Niklas, and K. Dornich, Contactless electrical defect characterization in semiconductors by microwave detected photo induced current transient spectroscopy (MD-PICTS) and microwave detected photoconductivity (MDP), Phys. Status Solidi A 208, 769 (2011).
  33. H. J. Möller, L. Long, M. Werner, and D. Yang, Oxygen and carbon precipitation in multicrystalline Si, Phys. Status Solidi A 171, 175 (1999).
  34. C. W. Lan, C. F. Yang, A. Lan, M. Yang, A. Yu, H. P. Hsu, B. Hsu, and C. Hsu, Engineering silicon crystals for photovoltaics, CrystEngComm 18, 1474 (2016).
  35. P. Wang, C. Cui, D. Yang, and X. Yu, Seed-assisted growth of cast-mono silicon for photovoltaic application: Challenges and strategies, Sol. RRL 4, 1900486 (2020).
  36. W. R. Thurber, R. L. Mattis, Y. M. Liu, and J. J. Filliben, Resistivity-dopant density relationship for boron-doped silicon, J. Electrochem. Soc. 127, 2291 (1980).
  37. C.-Y. Tsai, Interband and intraband absorption coefficients of silicon: Theoretical frameworks and formulations, IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 26, 1 (2020).
  38. J. Baird and M. Barsuglia, Fine-tuning the optical design of the advanced Virgo+ gravitational-wave detector using binary-neutron star signals, Galaxies 8, 86 (2020).
  39. http://dx.doi.org/10.5525/gla.researchdata.1344.

Outline

Information

Phys. Rev. Research 4, 043043– Published 18 October, 2022
  • Received 25 May 2022
  • Accepted 30 August 2022
Crossmark - Check for updates button
Creative Commons Logo

Published by the American Physical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article's title, journal citation, and DOI.

Published by the American Physical Society

Sign In to Your Journals Account

Filter

Filter

Article Lookup

Enter a citation