- Physical Review Journals
All JournalsPhysics Magazine

Physical Review Physics Education Research

Reuse & Permissions

It is not necessary to obtain permission to reuse this article or its components as it is available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. This license permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided attribution to the author(s) and the published article's title, journal citation, and DOI are maintained. Please note that some figures may have been included with permission from other third parties. It is your responsibility to obtain the proper permission from the rights holder directly for these figures.

Export citation

Export citation

Choose format for download:

Download Citation
  • Open Access

Cosmology and general relativity in upper secondary school through new targeted teaching materials: A study on student learning and motivation

A. Gasparini1, A. Müller1,2, F. Stern1, and L. Weiss1

PDF

Phys. Rev. Phys. Educ. Res. 21, 020107 – Published 18 July, 2025

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/ss9c-lkpj

Abstract

Despite its intellectual and philosophical significance, cosmology and general relativity (GR) remain largely inaccessible to high-school physics teaching because of the advanced conceptual and mathematical prerequisites to master these topics. Integrating them into upper secondary physics teaching, outside specialized courses, poses a significant challenge that remains unresolved. While the strong rationale for their inclusion in the curriculum is widely acknowledged, significant obstacles, both practical and conceptual, hinder implementation. Moreover, empirical evidence on successful classroom and curriculum integration of modern physics remains scarce. This contribution reports on an implementation study of a GR and cosmology course developed for upper secondary school students as part of an educational project launched during the centenary of GR in 2015 and tested ever since for several years. The course aimed to expand students’ knowledge to include current physics topics while highlighting their foundations in areas of classical physics such as Newtonian mechanics, electromagnetism, and waves. Targeted teaching and learning materials are focused on conceptual and qualitative understanding, while systematically combined with a mathematical treatment accessible at the upper secondary level, avoiding oversimplification. A key element is an active learning approach, incorporating activities and tasks such as engaging applications related to current research, reflective exercises, thought experiments, and hands-on tasks. The main research objective was to explore whether a conceptually deep and educationally effective GR and cosmology course could be successfully implemented for nonspecialist upper secondary students. A pre-post study assessed both conceptual learning and affective outcomes, including interest, curiosity, self-concept, and perceived relevance of science. Results showed encouraging gains in both learning and motivation, with large to very large effect sizes for conceptual learning of core principles. Additionally, no or small effects of predictors such as gender were observed. We conclude that the integration of GR and cosmology into upper secondary physics teaching, in the form of courses and materials that are engaging, comprehensible, and impactful, is feasible. This can enable learners in nonspecialist courses and with diverse backgrounds to engage with these intellectually and educationally rich and stimulating topics.

View figure in article

Physics Subject Headings (PhySH)

Article Text

Supplemental Material

References (76)

  1. E. Klein, Le temps existe-t-il? (Le Pommier, Paris 2003).
  2. F. Bernardeau, E. Klein, and S. Laplace, La Physique des Infinis (La Ville Brûle, Paris 2013).
  3. A. Barrau, Trous noirs et espace-temps (Bayard, Montrouge, 2018).
  4. C. Rovelli, Reality Is Not What It Seems: The Journey to Quantum Gravity (Penguin Books Ltd., London, 2018).
  5. M. S. Turner, The road to precision cosmology, Annu. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. 72, 1 (2022).
  6. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Pathways to Discovery in Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 2020s (The National Academies Press, Washington, DC 2021).
  7. LIGO Caltech. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.ligo.caltech.edu; NASA Webb Space Telescope. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://webb.nasa.gov; NASA LISA. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://lisa.nasa.gov; SKAO. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.skao.int.
  8. M. Michelini, Innovation of curriculum, and frontiers of fundamental physics in secondary school: Research-based proposals, in Fundamental Physics and Physics Education Research, edited by B. G. Sidharth, J. C. Murillo, M. Michelini, and C. Perea (Springer International Publishing, New York, 2021), pp. 101–116.
  9. UNESCO, International Standard Classification of Education: ISCED (UNESCO, Paris, 2011).
  10. S. Brandt, The Harvest of a Century: Discoveries of Modern Physics in 100 Episodes (Oxford University Press, New York, 2009).
  11. C. M. Becchi and M. D’Elia, Introduction to the Basic Concepts of Modern Physics: Special Relativity, Quantum and Statistical Physics (Springer, Cham, 2016).
  12. J. Butterfield and J. Earman, Handbook of the Philosophy of Science: Philosophy of Physics A (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2007).
  13. S. G. Brush and L. Belloni, The History of Modern Physics: An International Bibliography (Garland, New York, 1983).
  14. J. L. Lewis, The teaching of modern physics in schools, Phys. Bull. 13, 6 (1962).
  15. J. Ogborn, Modern physics curricula in higher education, Rep. Prog. Phys. 42, 727 (1979).
  16. S. K. Abell and N. G. Lederman, Handbook of Research on Science Education (Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, 2007).
  17. M. R. Matthews, International Handbook of Research in History, Philosophy and Science Teaching (Springer, New York, 2014).
  18. Swiss Physical Society, Focus II: Impact of physics on Swiss society, Communications of the Swiss Physical Society (2022). Retrieved from https://www.sps.ch/en/artikel/sps-focus/sps-focus-2.
  19. O. Levrini, Teaching modern physics on the basis of a content knowledge reconstruction, in Research in Science Education: Past, Present, and Future, edited by H. Behrendt et al. (Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1999), pp. 301–312.
  20. D. Gil and J. Solbes, The introduction of modern physics: Overcoming a deformed vision of science, Int. J. Sci. Educ. 15, 255 (1993).
  21. J. Pavlin, A. Stefanel, P. Lindenau, M. Kobel, A. K. Horvat, J. Wiener, and M. Čepič, Introduction of contemporary physics to pre-university education, in Teaching-Learning Contemporary Physics, edited by B. Jarosievitz and C. Sükösd (Springer, Cham, 2021), pp. 71–90.
  22. D. Zollman, Oersted lecture 2014: Physics education research and teaching modern physics, Am. J. Phys. 84, 573 (2016).
  23. Teaching-Learning Contemporary Physics: From Research to Practice, edited by B. Jarosievitz and C. Sükösd (Springer International Publishing, Cham, 2021).
  24. M. Michelini and A. Stefanel, Research studies on learning quantum physics, in The International Handbook of Physics Education Research: Learning Physics (Springer, New York, 2023), pp. 8–1.
  25. M. A. Gasparini, La cosmologie et la relativité générale par les mathématiques et la physique du lycée, Commun. Swiss Phys. Soc. 55, 45 (2018).
  26. M. Kersting, E. K. Henriksen, M. V. Bøe, and C. Angell, General relativity in upper secondary school: Design and evaluation of an online learning environment using the model of educational reconstruction, Phys. Rev. Phys. Educ. Res. 14, 010130 (2018).
  27. M. A. Gasparini, A. Müller, and L. Weiss, La cosmologie et la relativité générale au secondaire II au service de la motivation des élèves pour la physique, Rev. Math. l’école 230, 46 (2018).
  28. P. Alstein, K. Krijtenburg-Lewerissa, and W. R. Van, Joolingen, Teaching and learning special relativity theory in secondary and lower undergraduate education: A literature review, Phys. Rev. Phys. Educ. Res. 17, 023101 (2021).
  29. S. Weinberg, The Discovery of Subatomic Particles (Freeman, New York, 1984).
  30. M. Kobel, High school students’ exposure to modern particle physics, Europhysics News 34, 108 (2003).
  31. H. P. Beck, Physics and education—Perspectives from particle physics, Commun. Swiss Phys. Soc. 65, 22 (2021).
  32. A. Kranjc Horvat, J. Wiener, S. M. Schmeling, and A. Borowski, What does the curriculum say? Review of the particle physics content in 27 high-school physics curricula, Physics 4, 1278 (2022).
  33. H. Kragh, The science of the universe: Cosmology and science education, in International Handbook of Research in History, Philosophy and Science Teaching (Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, 2013), pp. 643–665.
  34. S. Salimpour, M. Fitzgerald, and R. Hollow, Examining the mismatch between the intended astronomy curriculum content, astronomical literacy, and the astronomical universe, Phys. Rev. Phys. Educ. Res. 20, 010135 (2024).
  35. M. Streit-Bianchi, M. Michelini, W. Binivento, and M. Tuveri, New Challenges and Opportunities in Physics Education (Springer, Cham, 2023).
  36. M. Kersting and J. Woithe, IMPRESS: International Modern Physics & Research in Education Seminar Series (2022). Retrieved from https://indico.cern.ch/category/15165/.
  37. M. Kersting, D. Blair, S. Sandrelli, J. Sherson, and J. Woithe, Making an IMPRESSion: Mapping out future directions in modern physics education, Phys. Educ. 59, 015501 (2023).
  38. R. Karplus, What is modern physics?, Phys. Today 24, 3, 13 (1971).
  39. O. Levrini and P. Fantini, Encountering productive forms of complexity in learning modern physics, Sci. Educ. 22, 1895 (2013).
  40. J. Baumert, W. Bos, and R. Watermann, TIMSS/III—Schülerleistungen in Mathematik und den Naturwissenschaften am Ende der Sekundarstufe II im internationalen Vergleich (Max-Planck-Institut für Bildungsforschung, Berlin, 1998).
  41. O. Levrini and P. Fantini, Encountering productive forms of complexity in learning modern physics, Sci. Educ. 22, 1895 (2013).
  42. H. Kragh, The science of the universe: Cosmology and science education, in International Handbook of Research in History, Philosophy and Science Teaching (Springer, Dordrecht, 2014), pp. 643–665.
  43. S. Sjøberg and C. Schreiner, Reaching the Minds and Hearts of Young People: What do we Know about their Interests, Attitudes, Values, and Priorities? What about the Interest for Space Science? (International Space Science Institute, Bern, 2007); S. Sjøberg and C. Schreiner, The ROSE Project: An Overview and Key Findings (University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway, 2010), https://www.uv.uio.no/ils/english/research/ projects/rose/publications/the-rose-project.pdf; A. Lelliott and M. Rollnick, Big ideas: A review of astronomy education research 1974–2008, Int. J. Sci. Educ. 32, 1771 (2010); Baram-A. Tsabari and A. Yarden, Characterizing children’s spontaneous interests in science and technology, 27, 803 (2012).
  44. European Commission, She Figures 2021—Gender in research and innovation (Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2021). Retrieved from https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2777/06090.
  45. Office Fédérale de Statistique (OfS, OfS Numbers (2021). Retrieved from https://www.pxweb.bfs.admin.ch/pxweb/de/px-x-1502040100_103/.
  46. Y. Hadzigeorgiou, Students’ reactions to natural and physical phenomena: Documenting wonder and engagement with science content knowledge, Interdiscip. J. Environ. Sci. Educ. 18, e2261 (2022).
  47. P. Valdesolo, A. Shtulman, and A. S. Baron, Science is awe-some: The emotional antecedents of science learning, Emotion Rev. 9, 215 (2017).
  48. D. B. Yaden, J. Iwry, K. J. Slack, J. C. Eichstaedt, Y. Zhao, G. E. Vaillant, and A. B. Newberg, The overview effect: Awe and self-transcendent experience in space flight, Psychol. Conscious. 3, 1 (2016).
  49. I. Galili and B. Zinn, Physics and art: A cultural symbiosis in physics education, Sci. Educ. 16, 441 (2007).
  50. A. Barrau, L’hypothèse K. Bernard Grasset (Editions Grasset, Paris, 2023).
  51. Teaching Relativity. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://teaching-relativity.org/.
  52. S. Salinpour, R. Tytler, B. Doig, M. T. Fitzgerald, and U. Eriksson, Conceptualizing the cosmos: Development and validation on the cosmology concept inventory for high school, Int. J. Sci. Math. Educ. 21, 251 (2023).
  53. M. Possel, The expanding universe: An introduction, Lecture at the WE Heraeus Summer School “Astronomy from Four Perspectives” (Haus of Astronomie, Heidelberg, 2017).
  54. A. Postiglione and I. De Angelis, Introducing general relativity in high school: A guide for teachers, in Challenges in Physics Education (Springer, Cham, 2022).
  55. https://nccr-swissmap.ch/
  56. A. Gasparini, Cosmologie et relativité générale, une première approche (PPUR, 2023).
  57. A. Gasparini and A. Müller, Cosmologie et relativité générale: Activités pour les élèves du secondaire II (Geneva, 2023).
  58. A. Gasparini, F. Stern, and L. Weiss, Un nouvel enseignement de la cosmologie et de la relativité générale expérimenté au gymnase (to be published).
  59. See Supplemental Material at http://link.aps.org/supplemental/10.1103/ss9c-lkpj for more details on the course during the last part of the treatment duration, the arguments covered as well as the questionnaires administered: the conceptual learning test and the affective test.
  60. L. Ding and R. Beichner, Approaches to data analysis of multiple-choice questions, Phys. Rev. ST Phys. Educ. Res. 5, 020103 (2009).
  61. A. Gasparini, Using mobile devices as experimental tools in physics lessons: An empirical study of the effects on learning and motivation at secondary school level, Ph.D. thesis, University of Geneva 2021.
  62. J. Kuhn and A. Müller, Context-based science education by newspaper story problems: A study on motivation and learning effects, Perspect. Sci. 2, 5 (2014).
  63. L. Hoffmann, P. Häußler, and S. Peters-Haft, An den Interessen von Mädchen und Jungen orientierter Physikunterricht (Christian-Albrechts-Universität, Kiel, 1997).
  64. C. Pawek, Schülerlabore als interessefördernde außerschulische Lernumgebungen für Schülerinnen und Schüler aus der Mittel- und Oberstufe, Ph.D. thesis, Christian-Albrechts-Universität Kiel, 2009.
  65. H. W. Marsh, The structure of academic self-concept: The Marsh/Shavelson model, J. Educ. Psychol. 82, 623 (1990).
  66. F. D. Naylor, A state-trait curiosity inventory: Effect of computer graphics on improving estimates to algebra word problems, J. Educ. Psychol. 77, 286 (1981).
  67. J. A. Litman, R. P. Collins, and C. D. Spielberger, The nature and measurement of sensory curiosity, Pers. Individ. Diff. 39, 1123 (2005).
  68. J.-M. Van der Maren, Méthodes de Recherche pour l’éducation (Presses de l’Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, 1996).
  69. J. Cohen, Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, 2nd ed. (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1988).
  70. J. Hattie, Visible Learning: A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement (Routledge, London, 2009).
  71. Y. Benjamini and Y. Hochberg, Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing, J. R. Stat. Soc. 57, 289 (1995).
  72. L. J. Cronbach, Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests, Psychometrika 16, 297 (1951).
  73. R Core Team, R: A language and environment for statistical computing (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, 2021). Retrieved from https://www.R-project.org.
  74. T. J. B. Kline, Classical test theory: Assumptions, equations, limitations, and item analyses, in Psychological Testing: A Practical Approach to Design and Evaluation (SAGE Publications, London, 2005), pp. 107–136.
  75. W. K. Adams and C. E. Wieman, Development and validation of instruments to measure learning of expert-like thinking, Int. J. Sci. Educ. 33, 1289 (2011).
  76. A. Gasparini, Supplementary data for: Cosmology and general relativity in upper secondary school through new targeted teaching materials: A study on student learning and motivation. Physical Review Physics Education Research (2025).

Outline

Information

Phys. Rev. Phys. Educ. Res. 21, 020107– Published 18 July, 2025
  • Received 6 March 2025
  • Accepted 17 May 2025
Crossmark - Check for updates button
Creative Commons Logo

Published by the American Physical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article’s title, journal citation, and DOI.

Published by the American Physical Society

Sign In to Your Journals Account

Filter

Filter

Article Lookup

Enter a citation