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  • Open Access

Thermal Operations from Informational Equilibrium

Seok Hyung Lie1,*, Jeongrak Son2,‡, Paul Boes, Nelly H. Y. Ng2,3, and Henrik Wilming4,†

  • *Contact author: seokhyung@unist.ac.kr
  • †Contact author: henrik.wilming@itp.uni-hannover.de
  • ‡Present address: Dahlem Center for Complex Quantum Systems, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 14195, Germany.
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Phys. Rev. Lett. 137, 030403 – Published 13 July, 2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/lm3h-c5f5

Abstract

Thermal operations are quantum channels that play a central role in deriving thermodynamic limitations in quantum systems. However, they were originally defined by implementation procedures rather than by fundamental principles. Alternative models of thermal processes have been proposed, but they obscure the resources required for implementation. Here, we identify the universal principle that separates these models. We show that thermal operations are uniquely characterized by a purely quantum information-theoretic property, which we call informational equilibrium. This formulation does not assume a particular Hamiltonian or even a notion of temperature: a channel is a thermal operation precisely when it leaves its environment invariant whenever the system is prepared in equilibrium. In this way, the usual energetic description of equilibrium (i.e., Gibbs states) emerges as a representation of an underlying informational constraint. Extending this framework, we note that enforcing environment invariance for all system inputs leads to catalytic channels, which idealize perfectly reusable heat baths. This informational equilibrium perspective culminates in a hierarchy for doubly-stochastic quantum channels, with strict separations between the classes. Our refined hierarchy sharpens the failure of the Birkhoff–von Neumann theorem in the quantum regime, and highlights the richer structural landscape of quantum channels compared to classical stochastic processes that cannot be captured by state-convertibility relations.

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Phys. Rev. Lett. 137, 030403– Published 13 July, 2026
  • Received 19 September 2025
  • Accepted 24 June 2026
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