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Photon counting beyond the rotating-wave approximation

Steven Kim and Fabian Hassler

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Phys. Rev. B 114, 125424 – Published 31 August, 2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/r2kl-xvd2

Abstract

Open quantum systems are often described by a Lindblad master equation, which relies on a set of approximations, most importantly the rotating-wave approximation, which is only valid for weak damping. In the Lindblad setting, dissipative processes are described through jump operators, distinguishing between absorption and emission of photons. This enables the simple identification of emitted photons, which provides a straightforward way to obtain the radiation statistics. Outside the rotating-wave limit, the Lindblad approach does not work. Open quantum systems can then be described by, e.g., the quantum Langevin equation. However, in this framework the number of emitted photons is not easily accessible. In this work, we point out how to obtain the photon counting statistics from a quantum Langevin equation and provide an expression for the photon current operator, for arbitrary systems coupled to linear environments. As an example, we employ the method to study the radiation statistics of a damped harmonic oscillator at finite temperature beyond the rotating-wave approximation. We show that even outside the rotating-wave limit, the most important contribution to the radiation statistics can be captured by an effective Lindblad equation, thus extending the range of possible applications of the Lindblad framework.

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Outline

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Phys. Rev. B 114, 125424– Published 31 August, 2026
  • Received 24 February 2026
  • Revised 28 July 2026
  • Accepted 3 August 2026
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