- Open Access
Imaging magnetic fields from electrical signals in a quantum microscope
Phys. Rev. Applied 25, 034079 – Published 25 March, 2026
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/4gyj-y254
Abstract
We report the experimental realization of a quantum silicon carbide microscope and demonstrate its functionality by imaging magnetic fields generated by electrical currents. We employ a dual-frequency sensing protocol to enhance the readout contrast and suppress noise arising from strain and temperature fluctuations. This approach enables spatial imaging of current-induced magnetic fields with a field of view of virtual pixels, temporal resolution of , spatial resolution of , and sensitivity of about per pixel. Further sensitivity enhancement is anticipated through the use of isotopically purified and improved light collection in crystallographically optimized wafer orientations. In addition, we implement a microwave-free imaging protocol based on a spin level anticrossing in , offering simplified operation with enhanced sensitivity. The demonstrated platform is compatible with commercial wafer-scale fabrication and holds strong potential for applications in biomedical imaging and diagnostics, as well as noninvasive current and temperature mapping in high-power electronic devices.
Physics Subject Headings (PhySH)
Article Text
References (59)
- G. Balasubramanian, I. Y. Chan, R. Kolesov, M. Al-Hmoud, J. Tisler, C. Shin, C. Kim, A. Wojcik, P. R. Hemmer, A. Krueger, T. Hanke, A. Leitenstorfer, R. Bratschitsch, F. Jelezko, and J. Wrachtrup, Nanoscale imaging magnetometry with diamond spins under ambient conditions, Nature 455, 648 (2008).
- J. M. Taylor, P. Cappellaro, L. Childress, L. Jiang, D. Budker, P. R. Hemmer, A. Yacoby, R. Walsworth, and M. D. Lukin, High-sensitivity diamond magnetometer with nanoscale resolution, Nat. Phys. 4, 810 (2008).
- H. Kraus, V. A. Soltamov, F. Fuchs, D. Simin, A. Sperlich, P. G. Baranov, G. V. Astakhov, and V. Dyakonov, Magnetic field and temperature sensing with atomic-scale spin defects in silicon carbide, Sci. Rep. 4, 5303 (2014).
- A. Gottscholl, M. Kianinia, V. Soltamov, S. Orlinskii, G. Mamin, C. Bradac, C. Kasper, K. Krambrock, A. Sperlich, M. Toth, I. Aharonovich, and V. Dyakonov, Initialization and read-out of intrinsic spin defects in a van der Waals crystal at room temperature, Nat. Mater. 19, 540 (2020).
- H. Clevenson, M. E. Trusheim, C. Teale, T. Schröder, D. Braje, and D. Englund, Broadband magnetometry and temperature sensing with a light-trapping diamond waveguide, Nat. Phys. 11, 393 (2015).
- N. Sekiguchi, M. Fushimi, A. Yoshimura, C. Shinei, M. Miyakawa, T. Taniguchi, T. Teraji, H. Abe, S. Onoda, T. Ohshima, M. Hatano, M. Sekino, and T. Iwasaki, Diamond quantum magnetometer with dc sensitivity of sub-10 pT toward measurement of biomagnetic field, Phys. Rev. Appl. 21, 064010 (2024).
- P. Rickhaus, O. V. Pylypovskyi, G. Seniutinas, V. Borras, P. Lehmann, K. Wagner, L. Žaper, P. J. Prusik, P. Makushko, I. Veremchuk, T. Kosub, R. Hübner, D. D. Sheka, P. Maletinsky, and D. Makarov, Antiferromagnetic nanoscale bit arrays of magnetoelectric thin films, Nano Lett. 24, 13172 (2024).
- K. Herb, L. A. Völker, J. M. Abendroth, N. Meinhardt, L. v. Schie, P. Gambardella, and C. L. Degen, Quantum magnetometry of transient signals with a time resolution of 1.1 nanoseconds, Nat. Commun. 16, 822 (2025).
- D. R. Glenn, K. Lee, H. Park, R. Weissleder, A. Yacoby, M. D. Lukin, H. Lee, R. L. Walsworth, and C. B. Connolly, Single-cell magnetic imaging using a quantum diamond microscope, Nat. Methods 12, 736 (2015).
- J. F. Barry, M. J. Turner, J. M. Schloss, D. R. Glenn, Y. Song, M. D. Lukin, H. Park, and R. L. Walsworth, Optical magnetic detection of single-neuron action potentials using quantum defects in diamond, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 113, 14133 (2016).
- S. Chen, W. Li, X. Zheng, P. Yu, P. Wang, Z. Sun, Y. Xu, D. Jiao, X. Ye, M. Cai, M. Shen, M. Wang, Q. Zhang, F. Kong, Y. Wang, J. He, H. Wei, F. Shi, and J. Du, Immunomagnetic microscopy of tumor tissues using quantum sensors in diamond, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 119, e2118876119 (2022).
- N. Aslam, H. Zhou, E. K. Urbach, M. J. Turner, R. L. Walsworth, M. D. Lukin, and H. Park, Quantum sensors for biomedical applications, Nat. Rev. Phys. 5, 157 (2023).
- S. Nishimura, T. Kobayashi, D. Sasaki, T. Tsuji, T. Iwasaki, M. Hatano, K. Sasaki, and K. Kobayashi, Wide-field quantitative magnetic imaging of superconducting vortices using perfectly aligned quantum sensors, Appl. Phys. Lett. 123, 112603 (2023).
- L. Toraille, K. Aizel, E. Balloul, C. Vicario, C. Monzel, M. Coppey, E. Secrét, J.-M. Siaugue, J. Sampaio, S. Rohart, N. Vernier, L. Bonnemay, T. Debuisschert, L. Rondin, J.-F. Roch, and M. Dahan, Optical magnetometry of single biocompatible micromagnets for quantitative magnetogenetic and magnetomechanical assays, Nano Lett. 18, 7635 (2018).
- D. R. Glenn, R. R. Fu, P. Kehayias, D. L. Sage, E. A. Lima, B. P. Weiss, and R. L. Walsworth, Micrometer-scale magnetic imaging of geological samples using a quantum diamond microscope, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 18, 3254 (2017).
- R. R. Fu, E. A. Lima, M. W. R. Volt, and R. Trubko, High-sensitivity moment magnetometry with the quantum diamond microscope, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 21, e2020GC009147 (2020).
- E. Farchi, Y. Ebert, D. Farfurnik, G. Haim, R. Shaar, and N. Bar-Gill, Quantitative vectorial magnetic imaging of multi-domain rock forming minerals using nitrogen-vacancy centers in diamond, SPIN 7, 1740015 (2017).
- M. J. Turner, N. Langellier, R. Bainbridge, D. Walters, S. Meesala, T. M. Babinec, P. Kehayias, A. Yacoby, E. Hu, M. Lončar, R. L. Walsworth, and E. V. Levine, Magnetic field fingerprinting of integrated-circuit activity with a quantum diamond microscope, Phys. Rev. Appl. 14, 014097 (2020).
- H. F. Wen, Y. Liu, W. Hao, Z. Fu, Z. Gao, D. Wang, X. Li, Z. Li, H. Guo, Z. Ma, Y. Jun, J. Tang, and J. Liu, Imaging electromagnetic boundary of microdevice using a wide field quantum microscope, Opt. Express 32, 10829 (2024).
- P. Kehayias, J. Walraven, A. L. Rodarte, and A. M. Mounce, High-resolution short-circuit fault localization in a multilayer integrated circuit using a quantum diamond microscope, Phys. Rev. Appl. 20, 014036 (2023).
- A. Gottscholl, M. Diez, V. Soltamov, C. Kasper, D. Krauße, A. Sperlich, M. Kianinia, C. Bradac, I. Aharonovich, and V. Dyakonov, Spin defects in h as promising temperature, pressure and magnetic field quantum sensors, Nat. Commun. 12, 4480 (2021).
- R. Rizzato, M. Schalk, S. Mohr, J. C. Hermann, J. P. Leibold, F. Bruckmaier, G. Salvitti, C. Qian, P. Ji, G. V. Astakhov, U. Kentsch, M. Helm, A. V. Stier, J. J. Finley, and D. B. Bucher, Extending the coherence of spin defects in h enables advanced qubit control and quantum sensing, Nat. Commun. 14, 5089 (2023).
- S. Vaidya, X. Gao, S. Dikshit, I. Aharonovich, and T. Li, Quantum sensing and imaging with spin defects in hexagonal boron nitride, Adv. Phys.: X 8, 2206049 (2023).
- A. J. Healey, S. C. Scholten, T. Yang, J. A. Scott, G. J. Abrahams, I. O. Robertson, X. F. Hou, Y. F. Guo, S. Rahman, Y. Lu, M. Kianinia, I. Aharonovich, and J.-P. Tetienne, Quantum microscopy with van der Waals heterostructures, Nat. Phys. 19, 87 (2023).
- G. V. Astakhov, M. M. Glazov, D. R. Yakovlev, E. A. Zhukov, W. Ossau, L. W. Molenkamp, and M. Bayer, Time-resolved and continuous-wave optical spin pumping of semiconductor quantum wells, Semicond. Sci. Technol. 23, 114001 (2008).
- D. Simin, V. A. Soltamov, A. V. Poshakinskiy, A. N. Anisimov, R. A. Babunts, D. O. Tolmachev, E. N. Mokhov, M. Trupke, S. A. Tarasenko, A. Sperlich, P. G. Baranov, V. Dyakonov, and G. V. Astakhov, All-optical dc nanotesla magnetometry using silicon vacancy fine structure in isotopically purified silicon carbide, Phys. Rev. X 6, 031014 (2016).
- Ö. O. Soykal and T. L. Reinecke, Quantum metrology with a single spin-3/2 defect in silicon carbide, Phys. Rev. B 95, 081405(R) (2017).
- R. Nagy, M. Niethammer, M. Widmann, Y.-C. Chen, P. Udvarhelyi, C. Bonato, J. U. Hassan, R. Karhu, I. G. Ivanov, N. T. Son, J. R. Maze, T. Ohshima, Ö. O. Soykal, A. Gali, S.-Y. Lee, F. Kaiser, and J. Wrachtrup, High-fidelity spin and optical control of single silicon-vacancy centres in silicon carbide, Nat. Commun. 10, 1954 (2019).
- A. N. Anisimov, A. V. Poshakinskiy, and G. V. Astakhov, Nuclear spin polarization in silicon carbide at room temperature in the Earth’s magnetic field, Commun. Mater. 6, 117 (2025).
- D. Simin, F. Fuchs, H. Kraus, A. Sperlich, P. G. Baranov, G. V. Astakhov, and V. Dyakonov, High-precision angle-resolved magnetometry with uniaxial quantum centers in silicon carbide, Phys. Rev. Appl. 4, 014009 (2015).
- M. Niethammer, M. Widmann, S.-Y. Lee, P. Stenberg, O. Kordina, T. Ohshima, N. T. Son, E. Janzén, and J. Wrachtrup, Vector magnetometry using silicon vacancies in 4H- under ambient conditions, Phys. Rev. Appl. 6, 034001 (2016).
- T. M. Hoang, H. Ishiwata, Y. Masuyama, Y. Yamazaki, K. Kojima, S.-Y. Lee, T. Ohshima, T. Iwasaki, D. Hisamoto, and M. Hatano, Thermometric quantum sensor using excited state of silicon vacancy centers in 4H- devices, Appl. Phys. Lett. 118, 044001 (2021).
- J. B. S. Abraham, C. Gutgsell, D. Todorovski, S. Sperling, J. E. Epstein, B. S. Tien-Street, T. M. Sweeney, J. J. Wathen, E. A. Pogue, P. G. Brereton, T. M. McQueen, W. Frey, B. D. Clader, and R. Osiander, Nanotesla magnetometry with the silicon vacancy in silicon carbide, Phys. Rev. Appl. 15, 064022 (2021).
- I. Lekavicius, S. G. Carter, D. J. Pennachio, S. White, J. R. Hajzus, A. P. Purdy, D. K. Gaskill, A. L. Yeats, and R. L. Myers-Ward, Magnetometry based on silicon-vacancy centers in isotopically purified 4H-, Phys. Rev. Appl. 19, 044086 (2023).
- J.-F. Wang et al., Magnetic detection under high pressures using designed silicon vacancy centres in silicon carbide, Nat. Mater. 22, 489 (2023).
- Y. Yamazaki, Y. Masuyama, K. Kojima, and T. Ohshima, Highly sensitive temperature sensing using the silicon vacancy in silicon carbide by simultaneously resonated optically detected magnetic resonance, Phys. Rev. Appl. 20, L031001 (2023).
- A. Hernández-Mínguez, A. V. Poshakinskiy, M. Hollenbach, P. V. Santos, and G. V. Astakhov, Acoustically induced coherent spin trapping, Sci. Adv. 7, eabj5030 (2021).
- W.-K. Quan, L. Liu, Q.-Y. Luo, X.-D. Liu, and J.-F. Wang, Fiber-integrated silicon carbide silicon-vacancy-based magnetometer, Opt. Lett. 48, 1423 (2023).
- M. Bejarano, F. J. T. Goncalves, T. Hache, M. Hollenbach, C. Heins, T. Hula, L. Körber, J. Heinze, Y. Berencén, M. Helm, J. Fassbender, G. V. Astakhov, and H. Schultheiss, Parametric magnon transduction to spin qubits, Sci. Adv. 10, eadi2042 (2024).
- K. Tahara, S.-i. Tamura, H. Toyama, J. J. Nakane, K. Kutsuki, Y. Yamazaki, and T. Ohshima, Quantum sensing with duplex qubits of silicon vacancy centers in at room temperature, npj Quantum Inf. 11, 58 (2025).
- D. Scheller, F. Hrunski, J. H. Schwarberg, W. Knolle, Ö. O. Soykal, P. Udvarhelyi, P. Narang, H. B. Weber, M. Hollendonner, and R. Nagy, Quantum-enhanced electric field mapping within semiconductor devices, Phys. Rev. Appl. 24, 014036 (2025).
- P. Fisher, A. Zappacosta, J. Fuhrmann, B. Haylock, W. Gao, R. Nagy, F. Jelezko, and R. Cernansky, High-resolution nanoscale ac quantum sensing in CMOS compatible , Nano Lett. 25, 11626 (2025).
- S. Oh, S.-J. Lee, J. H. Shim, N. W. Song, and T. T. Hien, Quantum diamond microscopy with optimized magnetic field sensitivity and sub-ms temporal resolution, J. Appl. Phys. 133, 204402 (2023).
- K. J. Rietwyk, A. Shaji, I. O. Robertson, A. J. Healey, P. Singh, S. C. Scholten, P. Reineck, D. A. Broadway, and J.-P. Tetienne, Practical limits to spatial resolution of magnetic imaging with a quantum diamond microscope, AVS Quantum Sci. 6, 044402 (2024).
- J. Tang, Z. Yin, C. A. Hart, J. W. Blanchard, J. T. Oon, S. Bhalerao, J. M. Schloss, M. J. Turner, and R. L. Walsworth, Quantum diamond microscope for dynamic imaging of magnetic fields, AVS Quantum Sci. 5, 044403 (2023).
- C. Roncaioli, C. A. Hart, R. Walsworth, and D. P. Fahey, All-in-one quantum diamond microscope for sensor characterization, AVS Quantum Sci. 6, 044403 (2024).
- C. Kasper, D. Klenkert, Z. Shang, D. Simin, A. Gottscholl, A. Sperlich, H. Kraus, C. Schneider, S. Zhou, M. Trupke, W. Kada, T. Ohshima, V. Dyakonov, and G. V. Astakhov, Influence of irradiation on defect spin coherence in silicon carbide, Phys. Rev. Appl. 13, 044054 (2020).
- H. Kraus, V. A. Soltamov, D. Riedel, S. Väth, F. Fuchs, A. Sperlich, P. G. Baranov, V. Dyakonov, and G. V. Astakhov, Room-temperature quantum microwave emitters based on spin defects in silicon carbide, Nat. Phys. 10, 157 (2014).
- A. Wickenbrock, H. Zheng, L. Bougas, N. Leefer, S. Alam, A. Jarmola, V. M. Acosta, and D. Budker, Microwave-free magnetometry with nitrogen-vacancy centers in diamond, Appl. Phys. Lett. 109, 053505 (2016).
- J. Shaji Rebeirro, M. Omar, T. Lenz, O. Dhungel, P. Blümler, D. Budker, and A. Wickenbrock, Microwave-free wide-field magnetometry using nitrogen-vacancy centers, Phys. Rev. Appl. 21, 044039 (2024).
- E. Janzén, A. Gali, P. Carlsson, A. Gällström, B. Magnusson, and N. T. Son, The silicon vacancy in , Physica B 404, 4354 (2009).
- I. D. Breev, Z. Shang, A. V. Poshakinskiy, H. Singh, Y. Berencén, M. Hollenbach, S. S. Nagalyuk, E. N. Mokhov, R. A. Babunts, P. G. Baranov, D. Suter, S. A. Tarasenko, G. V. Astakhov, and A. N. Anisimov, Inverted fine structure of a 6H- qubit enabling robust spin-photon interface, npj Quantum Inf. 8, 23 (2022).
- I. Lekavicius, R. L. Myers-Ward, D. J. Pennachio, J. R. Hajzus, D. K. Gaskill, A. P. Purdy, A. L. Yeats, P. G. Brereton, E. R. Glaser, T. L. Reinecke, and S. G. Carter, Orders of magnitude improvement in coherence of silicon-vacancy ensembles in isotopically purified 4H-, PRX Quantum 3, 010343 (2022).
- X. Gao, B. Jiang, A. E. L. Allcca, K. Shen, M. A. Sadi, A. B. Solanki, P. Ju, Z. Xu, P. Upadhyaya, Y. P. Chen, S. A. Bhave, and T. Li, High-contrast plasmonic-enhanced shallow spin defects in hexagonal boron nitride for quantum sensing, Nano Lett. 21, 7708 (2021).
- J.-F. Wang, F.-F. Yan, Q. Li, Z.-H. Liu, J.-M. Cui, Z.-D. Liu, A. Gali, J.-S. Xu, C.-F. Li, and G.-C. Guo, Robust coherent control of solid-state spin qubits using anti-Stokes excitation, Nat. Commun. 12, 3223 (2021).
- K.-H. Cheng, Z. Kazi, J. Rovny, B. Zhang, L. S. Nassar, J. D. Thompson, and N. P. de Leon, Massively multiplexed nanoscale magnetometry with diamond quantum sensors, Phys. Rev. X 15, 031014 (2025).
- M. Cambria, S. Chand, C. M. Reiter, and S. Kolkowitz, Scalable parallel measurement of individual nitrogen-vacancy centers, Phys. Rev. X 15, 031015 (2025).
- Z. Yin, J. Tang, C. A. Hart, J. W. Blanchard, X. Xiang, S. Satyajit, S. Bhalerao, T. Tao, S. J. DeVience, and R. L. Walsworth, Quantum diamond microscope for narrowband magnetic imaging with high spatial and spectral resolution, Phys. Rev. Appl. 22, 054050 (2024).
- A. Suhana, T. A. U. Svetikova, C. Schneider, M. Helm, A. Anisimov, and G. Astakhov, Raw data: Imaging magnetic fields from electrical signals in a quantum SiC microscope, Rodare, 2026, https://doi.org/10.14278/rodare.4446.