Free-electron laser (FEL) configurations in which the parameters of the electron beam vary along the undulator become relevant when considering new aspects of existing FELs or when exploring novel concepts. This paper describes a fully three-dimensional, analytical method suitable for studying such systems. As an example, we consider a seeded FEL driven by a beam with varying transverse sizes. In the context of the Vlasov-Maxwell formalism, a self-consistent equation governing the evolution of the radiation field amplitude is derived. An approximate solution to this equation is then obtained by employing an orthogonal expansion technique. This approach yields accurate estimates for both the amplified power and the radiation beam size. Specific numerical results are presented for two different sets of x-ray FEL parameters.

The field of hadron therapy is growing rapidly with several facilities currently being planned, under construction or in commissioning worldwide. In the “active scanning” irradiation technique, the target is irradiated using a narrow pencil beam that is scanned transversally over the target while the penetration depth is altered with the beam energy. Together, the target dose can thereby be conformed in all three dimensions to the shape of the tumor. For applications where a sharp lateral beam penumbra is required in order to spare critical organs from unwanted dose, beam size blowup due to scattering in on-line beam diagnostic monitors, air gaps and passive elements like the ripple filter must be minimized. This paper presents a model for transverse scattering of therapeutic hadron beams along arbitrary multislab geometries. The conventional scattering formulation, which is only applicable to a drift space, is extended to not only take beam optics into account, but also non-Gaussian transverse beam profiles which are typically obtained from the slow resonant extraction from a synchrotron. This work has been carried out during the design phase of the beam delivery system for MedAustron, an Austrian hadron therapy facility with first patient treatment planned for the end of 2015. Irradiation will be performed using active scanning with proton and carbon ion beams. As a direct application of the scattering model, design choices for the MedAustron proton gantry and treatment nozzles are evaluated with respect to the transverse beam profile at the focal point; in air and at the Bragg peak.

We report the experimental generation, acceleration, and characterization of a uniformly filled electron bunch obtained via space-charge-driven expansion (often referred to as “blow-out regime”) in an L-band (1.3-GHz) radiofrequency photoinjector. The beam is photoemitted from a cesium-telluride semiconductor photocathode using a short ($<200\mathrm{fs}$) ultraviolet laser pulse. The produced electron bunches are characterized with conventional diagnostics and the signatures of their ellipsoidal character are observed. We especially demonstrate the production of ellipsoidal bunches with charges up to $\sim 0.5\mathrm{nC}$ corresponding to a $\sim 20$-fold increase compared to previous experiments with metallic photocathodes.

We propose a simple method to significantly enhance the temporal coherence and spectral brightness of a self-amplified spontaneous emission (SASE) free-electron laser (FEL). In this purified SASE (pSASE) FEL, a few undulator sections (called slippage-boosted sections) resonant at a subharmonic of the FEL radiation are used in the middle stage of the exponential growth regime to amplify the radiation while simultaneously reducing the FEL bandwidth. In this slippage-boosted section, the average longitudinal velocity of electrons is reduced, which effectively increases the FEL slippage length that allows the radiation fields initially far apart to create a phase relation, leading to $n$ times increase in FEL cooperation length, where $n$ is the ratio of the resonant wavelength of the slippage-boosted section to that of the original FEL radiation. The purified radiation, as a seed with improved temporal coherence, is further amplified to saturation in the undulator sections tuned to the FEL wavelength. Using the linac coherent light source II (LCLS-II) parameters as an example, we show that with the proposed configuration the temporal coherence and spectral brightness of a SASE FEL can be significantly enhanced. This scheme may be applied to many SASE FEL light sources to enhance the FEL performance.

A detailed analysis is carried out of the various types of phase errors present in real undulator devices, and their statistical properties. The influence of phase errors on the radiation properties is also examined, distinguishing the effects on peak brightness and integrated flux, and including the effects of electron beam emittance and energy spread. The limitation of the usual expression for the reduction in intensity due to phase errors, based on the rms phase error, is explored, and a new parameter is introduced which correlates better with the reduction in integrated flux. The implications for operation of undulators in future lower emittance storage rings is also discussed.

Deflecting/crabbing cavities serve a variety of purposes in different accelerator applications, primarily in separating a single beam into multiple beams and in rotating bunches for head-on collisions at the interaction point in particle colliders. Deflecting/crabbing cavities are also used for transverse and longitudinal emittance exchange in beams, x-ray pulse compression, and for beam diagnostics. Compact superconducting deflecting/crabbing cavities are under development due to strict dimensional constraints and requirements for higher field gradients with low surface losses. The TEM-like superconducting parallel-bar cavity supports low operating frequencies, thus making the design favorable for many of the deflecting/crabbing cavity applications. The design of the parallel-bar cavity based on cylindrical straight loading elements and rectangular outer conductors has evolved and been adapted to improve the design properties by modifying the design geometry. The improved design with trapezoidal-shaped loading elements and cylindrical outer conductor has attractive properties such as low and well-balanced peak surface fields and high transverse shunt impedance. Additionally, the wide separation of modes in the higher-order mode spectrum and the absence of lower-order mode are advantageous in high current applications. The evolution of the parallel-bar geometry into an rf-dipole geometry is presented with a detailed analysis of the properties for each design.

In this paper we present the results of GEANT4 simulations of the production of surface muons as a function of energy of the incident protons on a graphite target. A validation of the GEANT4 hadronic physics models has been performed by comparing the results with experimental data from the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, United States. Considering the ISIS muon target as a reference, simulations have been performed to optimize the pion and muon production. Of particular significance, we predict that optimal surface muon production occurs at a relatively modest proton energy of 500 MeV. This will be of importance for the development of future $\mu \mathrm{SR}$ facilities.

An analytical method for calculating the magnetostatic field of a pulse transformer with open magnetic cores is put forward in this paper, and formulas for calculating inductances of a small aspect-ratio transformer are derived. In comparison to results calculated by finite element magnetostatic-field simulations, the calculated values of inductance of primary winding $L_1$ and the inductance of secondary winding $L_2$ have a relative error of about 5%, while the error of the coupling coefficient ($k$) is less than 2%. Meanwhile, the effect of current nonuniformity in the primary winding on magnetizing inductance is studied. According to the calculated results, this effect reduces the magnetizing inductance and the coupling coefficient of the transformer, and can lead to an overvoltage phenomenon on the secondary winding. A small aspect-ratio pulse transformer with open magnetic cores is developed, which has a small size of $250\mathrm{mm}\times 150\mathrm{mm}$ in length and diameter, respectively. Inductances of the transformer are measured. The measured results conform to the law obtained in this work. Tests of the pulsed transformer are carried out. Experimental results show that the transformer can export a high-voltage pulse with an amplitude of 310 kV and full width at half maximum of $1\mu \mathrm{s}$.

We propose to use a relativistic electron beam which has a shape of a wiggle to generate coherent radiation. We show that such a beam can generate not only radiation with a wavelength equal to the period of the wiggle, but also higher harmonics of that period. Specific calculations are carried out for undulator radiation. Requirements for the transverse size of the beam are obtained.

DESY activities on 1.3 GHz tesla shape single cell and nine-cell large grain (LG) resonators are presented; results of the past five years are covered. The R&D program explores the potential for production of elliptical superconducting cavities. The main efforts have been devoted to material investigation, development of LG disk production, cavity fabrication from this material, and a search for appropriate treatment. More than 250 LG disks are manufactured; several single cell and 11 nine-cell resonators are produced and rf tested after buffered chemical polishing and after additional electropolishing. A maximum accelerating gradient of approximately $45\mathrm{MV}/\mathrm{m}$ for this type of cavity was achieved in two resonators. Two of the LG cavities have been installed and are currently being used in the FLASH accelerator operation. Assembly of a cryomodule, consisting of LG cavities only, is in the works. Perspectives of the LG cavity application are discussed.

Understanding coherent synchrotron radiation (CSR) effects in a bunch compressor requires an accurate model accounting for the realistic beam shape and parameters. We extend the well-known 1D CSR analytic model into two dimensions and develop a simple numerical model based on the Liénard-Wiechert formula for the CSR field of a coasting beam. This CSR numerical model includes the 2D spatial dependence of the field in the bending plane and is accurate for arbitrary beam energy. It also removes the singularity in the space charge field calculation present in a 1D model. Good agreement is obtained with 1D CSR analytic result for free electron laser (FEL) related beam parameters but it can also give a more accurate result for low-energy/large spot size beams and off-axis/transient fields. This 2D CSR model can be used for understanding the limitation of various 1D models and for benchmarking fully electromagnetic multidimensional particle-in-cell simulations for self-consistent CSR modeling.

Laser-based electron sources are attracting strong interest from the conventional accelerator community due to their unique characteristics in terms of high initial energy, low emittance, and significant beam current. Extremely strong electric fields (up to hundreds of $\mathrm{GV}/\mathrm{m}$) generated in the plasma allow accelerating gradients much higher than in conventional accelerators and set the basis for achieving very high final energies in a compact space. Generating laser-driven high-energy electron beam lines therefore represents an attractive challenge for novel particle accelerators. In this paper we show that laser-driven electrons generated by the nowadays consolidated TW laser systems, when leaving the interaction region, are subject to a very strong, normalized emittance worsening which makes them quickly unusable for any beam transport. Furthermore, due to their intrinsic beam characteristics, controlling and capturing the full beam current can only be achieved improving the source parameters.

The genetic algorithm (GA) is a powerful technique that implements the principles nature uses in biological evolution to optimize a multidimensional nonlinear problem. The GA works especially well for problems with a large number of local extrema, where traditional methods (such as conjugate gradient, steepest descent, and others) fail or, at best, underperform. The field of accelerator physics, among others, abounds with problems which lend themselves to optimization via GAs. In this paper, we report on the successful application of GAs in several problems related to the existing Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility nuclear physics machine, the proposed Medium-energy Electron-Ion Collider at Jefferson Lab, and a radio frequency gun-based injector. These encouraging results are a step forward in optimizing accelerator design and provide an impetus for application of GAs to other problems in the field. To that end, we discuss the details of the GAs used, include a newly devised enhancement which leads to improved convergence to the optimum, and make recommendations for future GA developments and accelerator applications.

The secondary emission yield (SEY) properties of colaminated Cu samples for LHC beam screens are correlated to the surface chemical composition determined by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The surface of the as-received samples is characterized by the presence of significant quantities of contaminating adsorbates and by the maximum of the SEY curve (${\delta }_{\max }$) being as high as 2.1. After extended electron scrubbing at kinetic energy of 10 and 500 eV, the ${\delta }_{\max }$ value drops to the ultimate values of 1.35 and 1.1, respectively. In both cases the surface oxidized phases are significantly reduced, whereas only in the sample scrubbed at 500 eV the formation of a graphitic-like C layer is observed. We find that the electron scrubbing of technical Cu surfaces can be described as occurring in two steps: the first step consists in the electron-induced desorption of weakly bound contaminants that occurs indifferently at 10 and at 500 eV and corresponds to a partial decrease of ${\delta }_{\max }$; the second step, activated by more energetic electrons and becoming evident at high doses, increases the number of graphitic-like C-C bonds via the dissociation of adsorbates already contaminating the as-received surface or accumulating on this surface during irradiation. Our results demonstrate how the kinetic energy of impinging electrons is a crucial parameter when conditioning the surfaces of Cu and other metals by means of electron-induced chemical processing.

During the beam commissioning of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) [LHC Design Report No. CERN-2004-003-V-1, 2004 [http://cds.cern.ch/record/782076?ln=en]; O. Brüning, H. Burkhardt, and S. Myers, Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys. 67, 705 (2012)] with 150, 75, 50, and 25-ns bunch spacing, important electron-cloud effects, like pressure rise, cryogenic heat load, beam instabilities, or emittance growth, were observed. Methods have been developed to infer different key beam-pipe surface parameters by benchmarking simulations and pressure rise as well as heat-load observations. These methods allow us to monitor the scrubbing process, i.e., the reduction of the secondary emission yield as a function of time, in order to decide on the most appropriate strategies for machine operation. To better understand the influence of electron clouds on the beam dynamics, simulations have been carried out to examine both the coherent and the incoherent effects on the beam. In this paper we present the methodology and first results for the scrubbing monitoring process at the LHC. We also review simulated instability thresholds and tune footprints for beams of different emittance, interacting with an electron cloud in field-free or dipole regions.

A novel approach to implement and control electron injection into the accelerating phase of a laser wakefield accelerator is presented. It utilizes a wire, which is introduced into the flow of a supersonic gas jet creating shock waves and three regions of differing plasma electron density. If tailored appropriately, the laser plasma interaction takes place in three stages: Laser self-compression, electron injection, and acceleration in the second plasma wave period. Compared to self-injection by wave breaking of a nonlinear plasma wave in a constant density plasma, this scheme increases beam charge by up to 1 order of magnitude in the quasimonoenergetic regime. Electron acceleration in the second plasma wave period reduces electron beam divergence by $\approx 25\%$, and the localized injection at the density downramps results in spectra with less than a few percent relative spread.

Multipactor discharge in an accelerating superconducting elliptic cavity occurs usually near its equator. As simulations show, the dimensions of the trajectories of multipacting electrons are very small compared to the dimensions of a cavity. This feature gives a way for solving explicit equations of motion instead of cumbersome simulations. Electric and magnetic fields near the cavity equator are presented in a form of expansions up to the third power of coordinates. Comparisons with numerical calculations of fields made with the SLANS code for the TESLA cavity cells, as well as with the analytical solution for a spherical cavity, are done. These fields are used for solving the equations of motion of electrons in crossed rf fields near the equator. Based on the analysis of these equations, general features of multipacting in this area are obtained. Results are compared with simulations and experimental data. The experimental formulas for multipacting zones are explained and their dependence on the cavity geometries is shown. Because of small sizes of electron trajectories, the influence of the weld seams is taken into account. This suggests a possible explanation of multipacting in a cavity which was not found by simulations. The developed approach allows evaluation of multipacting in a cavity without its simulations but after an analysis of fields in the equatorial region. These fields can be computed by any code used for cavity calculation.

In charged particle accelerators, higher order optics studies become important from various points of view, such as dynamic aperture, emittance dilution, beam loss, etc. For some new applications, nonlinear study has become important in single pass optics also. For studying the higher order optics, each magnetic element is represented by a higher order transfer function (map, i.e., a function that relates output coordinates of a trajectory with initial coordinates and momentum deviation). Here in this paper we have provided an alternate method to obtain the analytical formulation of the transfer function for a dipole magnet. This formulation is obtained on the basis of basic geometrical analysis and is exact up to all orders under hard edge approximation. Being an analytical expression, the estimation of higher order effects of dipole magnet can be studied quickly. For checking the correctness of this formulation, we separated terms up to third order, which can be used to obtain the standard transfer matrices up to same order. An example of emittance growth and bunch length modification for a $C$-chicane-type electron beam bunch compressor is provided using the analytical expression.

The near-surface nanostructure of niobium determines the performance of superconducting microwave cavities. Subtle variations in surface nanostructure lead to yet unexplained phenomena such as the dependence of the quality factor of these resonating structures on the magnitude of rf fields—an effect known as the “$Q$ slopes”. Understanding and controlling the $Q$ slopes is of great practical importance for particle accelerators. Here we investigate the mild baking effect—$120°\mathrm{C}$ vacuum baking for 48 hours—which strongly affects the $Q$ slopes. We used a hydrofluoric acid rinse alternating with oxidation in water as a tool for stepwise material removal of about $2\mathrm{nanometers}/\mathrm{step}$ from the surface of superconducting niobium cavities. Applying removal cycles on mild baked cavities and measuring the quality factor dependence on the rf fields after one or several such cycles allowed us to explore the distribution of lossy layers within the first several tens of nanometers from the surface. We found that a single HF rinse results in the increase of the cavity quality factor. The low field $Q$ slope was shown to be mostly controlled by the material structure within the first six nanometers from the surface. The medium field $Q$ slope evolution was fitted using linear ($\propto B$ peak surface magnetic field) and quadratic ($\propto B^2$) terms in the surface resistance and it was found that best fits do not require the quadratic term. We found that about 10 nanometers of material removal are required to bring back the high field $Q$ slope and about 20–50 nanometers to restore the onset field to the prebaking value.

The paper presents the current status with the use of the crystal defectors for high energy ion beams. The channeling properties of multicharged ions are discussed. The results of the experiments on the deflection and extraction (collimation) of high energy ion beams with bent crystals performed in the accelerator centers are shortly considered. The analysis of the recent collimation experiment with a Pb nuclei of $270\mathrm{GeV}/c$ per charge at the CERN Super Proton Synchrotron showed that the channeling efficiency was as large as about 90%. For Pb ions of the LHC energies a new mechanism, which can reduce the channeling efficiency, appears. The electromagnetic dissociation (ED) becomes possible for well channeled particles. However, the estimations performed in the paper show that the ED probability is small and should not visibly reduce the collimation efficiency. On the other hand, the aligned crystal gives the possibility to study the ED processes of heavy nuclei in the conditions when nuclear interactions are fully suppressed.