Many next-generation, high-gradient accelerator applications, from energy-recovery linacs to accelerator-driven systems (ADS) rely on continuous wave (CW) operation for which superconducting radio-frequency (SRF) systems are the enabling technology. However, while SRF cavities dissipate little power, they must be cooled by liquid helium and for many CW accelerators the complexity as well as the investment and operating costs of the cryoplant can prove to be prohibitive. We investigated ways to reduce the dynamic losses by improving the residual resistance ($R_{\mathrm{res}}$) of niobium cavities. Both the material treatment and the magnetic shielding are known to have an impact. In addition, we found that $R_{\mathrm{res}}$ can be reduced significantly when the cool-down conditions during the superconducting phase transition of the niobium are optimized. We believe that not only do the cool-down conditions impact the level to which external magnetic flux is trapped in the cavity but also that thermoelectric currents are generated which in turn create additional flux that can be trapped. Therefore, we investigated the generation of flux and the dynamics of flux trapping and release in a simple model niobium-titanium system that mimics an SRF cavity in its helium tank. We indeed found that thermal gradients along the system during the superconducting transition can generate a thermoelectric current and magnetic flux, which subsequently can be trapped. These effects may explain the observed variation of the cavity’s $R_{\mathrm{res}}$ with cool-down conditions.

A residual gas fluorescence beam profile monitor at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) has successfully recorded beam images of various species of relativistic heavy ions during FY2012 operations. These fully striped ions include gold, copper, and uranium at 100, 99.9, and $96.4\mathrm{GeV}/\mathrm{n}$, respectively. Their beam profiles give an independent measurement of the RHIC beam size and emittance. We estimated their corresponding fluorescence cross sections to be $2.1\times {10}^{-16}$, $1.8\times {10}^{-17}$, and $2.6\times {10}^{-16}{\mathrm{cm}}^2$, and obtained their rms transverse beam sizes of 0.36, 0.37, 0.24 mm for gold, copper, and uranium ions, respectively. They are the smallest ion beam width, thus lowest beam emittance, ever produced at RHIC or any other high-energy heavy ion colliders. These extremely small beam sizes may have reached a fundamental limit to residual gas fluorescence based beam profile monitor. Nevertheless, this beam diagnostic technique, utilizing the beam-induced fluorescence from residual gas where hydrogen is still the dominant constituent in nearly all vacuum systems, represents a passive, robust, truly noninvasive, monitor for high-energy ion beams.

The evolution of picosecond modulations of the longitudinal profile of an electron beam generated in an rf photoinjector is analyzed and optimized with the goal of obtaining high peak current electron bunch trains at very high frequencies ($\ge \mathrm{THz}$). Taking advantage of nonlinear longitudinal space charge forces, it is found that more than 500 A peak current 1 THz bunch trains can be generated using a standard 1.6 cell SLAC/UCLA/BNL rf gun. Postacceleration is used to freeze the longitudinal phase space dynamics after one half plasma oscillation. Applications range from tunable narrow bandwidth THz radiation generation to drivers for high frequency high gradient accelerators.

Investigations of the effects of optical transition radiation (OTR) polarization components on beam profiles are presented. The transverse profiles are examined using the OTR perpendicular and parallel polarization components with respect to the dimension of interest. We observed $\sim 15\%$ projected profile size reductions with the perpendicularly polarized components on a $65\mathrm{\text{−}}\mu \mathrm{m}$ beam image size case at 14 MeV, a $150\mathrm{\text{−}}\mu \mathrm{m}$ beam image size at 4.5 GeV, and a $1100\mathrm{\text{−}}\mu \mathrm{m}$ beam image size at 7 GeV. These effects are all several times larger than expected (and anomalous in this sense) when compared to the standard OTR point-spread function calculations. We propose the time-averaged induced-current distribution which generates the OTR represents the actual beam size more faithfully with the perpendicular polarization component and recommend its routine use and subsequent deconvolution.

Schroeder, Esarey, Geddes, Benedetti, and Leemans [Phys. Rev. ST Accel. Beams 13, 101301 (2010) and Phys. Rev. ST Accel. Beams 15, 051301 (2012)] have proposed a set of parameters for a TeV-scale collider based on plasma wakefield accelerator principles. In particular, it is sugested that the luminosities greater than ${10}^{34}{\mathrm{cm}}^{-2}{\mathrm{s}}^{-1}$ are attainable for an electron-positron collider. In this Comment we dispute this set of parameters on the basis of first principles. The interactions of accelerating beam with plasma impose fundamental limitations on beam properties and, thus, on attainable luminosity values.

We reply to Lebedev and Nagaitsev’s foregoing Comment [Phys. Rev. ST Accel. Beams 16, 108001 (2013)]. We disagree with the conclusion of the Comment that scattering imposes a fundamental limitation on plasma-based accelerator technology. Laser-plasma accelerators are compatible with high-luminosity collider concepts.

To date, superconducting spoke cavities have been designed, developed, and tested for particle velocities up to ${\beta }_0\sim 0.6$, but there is a growing interest in possible applications of multispoke cavities for high-velocity applications. We have explored the design parameter space for low-frequency, high-velocity, double-spoke superconducting cavities in order to determine how each design parameter affects the electromagnetic properties, in particular the surface electromagnetic fields and the shunt impedance. We present detailed design for cavities operating at 325 and 352 MHz and optimized for ${\beta }_0=0.82$ and 1.

A weak vertical coupled-bunch instability with oscillation amplitude of the order of a few $\mu \mathrm{m}$ has been observed in SPEAR3 at nominal vacuum pressure. The instability becomes stronger with increasing neutral gas pressure as observed by turning off vacuum pumps, and becomes weaker when the vertical beam emittance is increased. These observations indicate that the vertical beam motion is driven by ions trapped in the periodic potential of the electron beam. In this paper we present a series of comprehensive beam measurements, impedance-based stability analysis, and numerical simulations of beam-ion interactions in SPEAR3. The effects of vacuum pressure, gas species, beam current, bunch fill pattern, chromaticity, and vertical beam emittance are investigated.

Intrabeam scattering (IBS) limits the emittance and single-bunch current that can be achieved in electron or positron storage ring colliders, damping rings, and light sources. Much theoretical work on IBS exists, and while the theories have been validated in hadron and ion machines, the presence of strong damping makes IBS in lepton machines a different phenomenon. We present the results of measurements at CesrTA of IBS-dominated beams, and compare the data with theory. The beams we study have parameters typical of those specified for the next generation of wiggler-dominated storage rings: low emittance, small bunch length, and an energy of a few GeV. Our measurements are in good agreement with IBS theory, provided a tail-cut procedure is applied.

Strongly self-modulated regime of laser wakefield electron acceleration has been experimentally studied using positively/negatively chirped Ti:sapphire laser pulses with duration $\ge 45\mathrm{fs}$, and intensity $\le 1.2\times {10}^{18}\mathrm{W}/{\mathrm{cm}}^2$ interacting with a plasma having density $>5\times {10}^{19}{\mathrm{cm}}^{-3}$. The total charge of the high energy electrons produced from self-injection and acceleration in the wakefield was found to depend strongly and asymmetrically on the magnitude and sign of the chirp, which was also corroborated by the forward Raman scattering signals. Generation of low divergence ($\le 10\mathrm{mrad}$), quasimonoenergetic electron beam was observed with a maximum energy of $\sim 28\mathrm{MeV}$ for a positively chirped laser pulse of duration $\sim 70\mathrm{fs}$. The observations are explained considering faster rise time associated with a positive chirped laser pulse which generates intense seed for stronger modulation of the laser pulse and consequently stronger wakefield excitation leading to higher electron beam charge and energy.

$C$-band low-energy electron linear accelerators are preferable for applications which require compact structure and accurate positioning. During the past two years, the accelerator laboratory of Tsinghua University has developed a $C$-band 6 MeV standing-wave biperiodic on-axis coupled linear accelerator. The weight of the accelerator is 7.4 kg and the length is about 39 cm, which includes the thermal-cathode gun and the flange for tests. High capture ratio, narrow energy spectrum, and small spot size have been achieved in the high power rf test, which shows good performance of this accelerator and its great potential for industrial and medical applications.

We present a mathematical analysis of planar motion of energetic electrons moving through a planar dipole undulator, excited by a fixed planar polarized plane wave Maxwell field in the x-ray free electron laser (FEL) regime. Our starting point is the 6D Lorentz system, which allows planar motions, and we examine this dynamical system as the wavelength $\lambda$ of the traveling wave varies. By scalings and transformations the 6D system is reduced, without approximation, to a 2D system in a form for a rigorous asymptotic analysis using the method of averaging (MoA), a long-time perturbation theory. The two dependent variables are a scaled energy deviation and a generalization of the so-called ponderomotive phase. As $\lambda$ varies the system passes through resonant and nonresonant (NonR) intervals and we develop NonR and near-to-resonant (NearR) MoA normal form approximations to the exact equations. The NearR normal forms contain a parameter which measures the distance from a resonance. For the planar motion, with the special initial condition that matches into the undulator design trajectory, and on resonance, the NearR normal form reduces to the well-known FEL pendulum system. We then state and prove NonR and NearR first-order averaging theorems which give explicit error bounds for the normal form approximations. We prove the theorems in great detail, giving the interested reader a tutorial on mathematically rigorous perturbation theory in a context where the proofs are easily understood. The proofs are novel in that they do not use a near-identity transformation and they use a system of differential inequalities. The NonR case is an example of quasiperiodic averaging where the small divisor problem enters in the simplest possible way. To our knowledge the planar problem has not been analyzed with the generality we aspire to here nor has the standard FEL pendulum system been derived with associated error bounds as we do here. We briefly discuss the low gain theory in light of our NearR normal form. Our mathematical treatment of the noncollective FEL beam dynamics problem in the framework of dynamical systems theory sets the stage for our mathematical investigation of the collective high gain regime.

The thermal and field emission of electrons from protrusions on metal surfaces is a possible limiting factor on the performance and operation of high-gradient room temperature accelerator structures. We present here the results of extensive numerical simulations of electrical and thermal behavior of protrusions. We unify the thermal and field emission in the same numerical framework, describe bounds for the emission current and geometric enhancement, then we calculate the Nottingham and Joule heating terms and solve the heat equation to characterize the thermal evolution of emitters under rf electric field. Our findings suggest that heating is entirely due to the Nottingham effect. The time dependence of the rf field leads to a time dependent tip temperature with excursion that depends weakly on rf frequency. We build a phenomenological model to account for the effect of space charge and show that space charge eliminates the possibility of copper tip melting for tips with radii less than $10\mu \mathrm{m}$ with vacuum fields on their surface less than $12\mathrm{GV}/\mathrm{m}$, and for rf frequencies above 1 GHz.

A high-luminosity muon collider requires a significant reduction of the six-dimensional emittance prior to acceleration. Obtaining the desired final emittances requires transporting the muon beam through long sections of a beam channel containing rf cavities, absorbers, and focusing solenoids. Here we propose a new scheme to improve the performance of the channel, consequently increasing the number of transmitted muons and the lattice cooling efficiency. The key idea of our scheme is to tune progressively the main lattice parameters, such as the cell dimensions, rf frequency, and coil strengths, while always keeping the beam emittance significantly above the equilibrium value. We adopt this approach for a new cooling lattice design for a muon collider, and examine its performance numerically. We show that with tapering the cooling rate is not only higher than conventional designs, but also maintains its performance through the channel, resulting in a notable 6D emittance decrease by 3 orders of magnitude. We also review important lattice parameters, such as the required focusing fields, absorber length, cavity frequency, and voltage.

We describe full wave simulation results for a compact, novel deflecting structure operating around 2 GHz. The structure consists of a pair of elliptical complementary split-ring resonators (CSRRs) etched into a copper rectangular waveguide along with outer rectangular cavities to maintain the vacuum. Our design utilizes the strong electric fields created by the resonators to impart a transverse deflection to particle bunches traveling through the structure. Simulations suggest a total deflecting voltage of 0.132 MV and a transverse accelerating gradient of $1.55\mathrm{MV}/\mathrm{m}$ for only 4.42 kW of applied rf power. We also present, as a design aid, a simplified, approximate analysis of the operating frequency.

A 1D nonlinear theory of a free electron laser (FEL) with a helical wiggler and an axial guide magnetic field is developed based on averaged equations of the electron motion. By averaging we separated two different cases of the e-beam/rf-wave interaction. The first one corresponds to the traditional wiggler synchronism (resonance) of rf wave with the electrons moving along stationary helical trajectories. The second one corresponds to combination resonances distinguishing by excitation of oscillation of the electrons near the stationary helical trajectory. Comparative analysis of the FEL operation in different regimes has been studied under the traditional wiggler synchronism condition. It was shown that FELs operated far from cyclotron resonance (including a reversed guide field orientation) possess low sensitivity to the initial velocity spread in the driving beam resulting in high electron efficiency. In contrast, under the weak guide field (the gyrofrequency is less than the bounce frequency) of a conventional orientation, the FEL efficiency is restricted by a significant increase in the transverse velocity of the electrons during the interaction with the rf wave that results in violation of the synchronism conditions and is accompanied by electron current losses. An additional mechanism of FEL efficiency enhancement under the conventional guide field orientation in the conditions when the gyrofrequency is higher than the bounce frequency, based on the dependence of the effective mass of the oscillating electrons on their energy, was demonstrated. Results of the theoretical analysis are compared with the results of experimental studies of FEL oscillators. The specific features of energy extraction from the electron beam under condition of an abnormal Doppler effect in the case of the combination resonance are described. This regime is beneficial to increase radiation frequency keeping wiggler period and electron energies.

The accurate and stable synchronization between electron bunch and external laser is a key requirement for the successful operation of an externally seeded free electron laser. This requirement is particularly stringent when the electron bunch is longitudinally compressed to sub-ps durations. We present an analytical description of the electron bunch arrival-time jitter that, supported by experimental evidence, allows the identification of specific, dominant jitter sources. The arrival-time jitter measurements were carried out as a function of the bunch length compression factor in FERMI@Elettra linac. The experimental behavior of the pulse-to-pulse time jitter agrees well both with the analytical predictions and particle tracking simulations. Our modeling takes into account the photoinjector laser arrival time on the cathode, the jitter of phases and voltages of the radio-frequency accelerator, and fluctuations of the compressor’s dipole field.

Pb thin films were deposited on Nb substrates by means of pulsed laser deposition (PLD) with UV radiation (248 nm), in two different ablation regimes: picosecond (5 ps) and subpicosecond (0.5 ps). Granular films with grain size on the micron scale have been obtained, with no evidence of large droplet formation. All films presented a polycrystalline character with preferential orientation along the (111) crystalline planes. A maximum quantum efficiency (QE) of $7.3\times {10}^{-5}$ (at 266 nm and 7 ns pulse duration) was measured, after laser cleaning, demonstrating good photoemission performance for Pb thin films deposited by ultrashort PLD. Moreover, Pb thin film photocathodes have maintained their QE for days, providing excellent chemical stability and durability. These results suggest that Pb thin films deposited on Nb by ultrashort PLD are a noteworthy alternative for the fabrication of photocathodes for superconductive radio-frequency electron guns. Finally, a comparison with the characteristics of Pb films prepared by ns PLD is illustrated and discussed.

Understanding the effects of rf breakdown in high-gradient accelerator structures on the accelerated beam is an extremely relevant aspect in the development of the Compact Linear Collider (CLIC) and is one of the main issues addressed at the Two-beam Test Stand at the CLIC Test Facility 3 at CERN. During a rf breakdown high currents are generated causing parasitic magnetic fields that interact with the accelerated beam affecting its orbit. The beam energy is also affected because the power is partly reflected and partly absorbed thus reducing the available energy to accelerate the beam. We discuss here measurements of such effects observed on an electron beam accelerated in a CLIC prototype structure. Measurements of the trajectory of bunch trains on a nanosecond time scale showed fast changes in correspondence of breakdown that we compare with measurements of the relative beam spots on a scintillating screen. We identify different breakdown scenarios for which we offer an explanation based also on measurements of the power at the input and output ports of the accelerator structure. Finally we present the distribution of the magnitude of the observed changes in the beam position and we discuss its correlation with rf power and breakdown location in the accelerator structure.

The Compact Linear Collider (CLIC) is a study for a future linear electron-positron collider based on a two-beam acceleration scheme in which a high-intensity drive beam is decelerated in order to provide the power to accelerate the main beam for collision in the TeV range. The power extracted from the drive beam deteriorates the beam quality and increases the energy spread significantly. Monitoring of the beam properties is therefore challenging but essential. These challenges are being addressed experimentally at the CLIC test facility where up to 55% of the power is extracted from the beam in the test beam line, a small-scale version of the CLIC drive-beam decelerator, leaving the beam with a very wide energy profile. For monitoring of the transverse beam profile and Twiss parameters we use optical transition radiation screens and quadrupole scans. The intra-pulse-train energy spectrum before and after deceleration is measured with segmented beam dumps. In this paper we discuss the performance of these diagnostic devices with a particular emphasis on the large energy spread and its effect on the beam imaging techniques, and with a final outlook to the CLIC drive-beam diagnostics.