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    Bulk-Water Behavior of Water Clusters Studied by Isotope Effects

    Klavs Hansen1,*,†, Kaveh Najafian2,‡, Bertil Dynefors2,‡, Mauritz J. Ryding3, Einar Uggerud3, Siegfried Kollotzek4,§, Johannes Reichegger4, Olga V. Lushchikova4,∥, and Paul Scheier4

    • 1Center for Joint Quantum Studies and Department of Physics, School of Science, Tianjin University, 92 Weijin Road, Tianjin, 300072, China
    • 2Department of Physics, Chalmers Technical University, Gothenburg, 41296, Sweden
    • 3Hylleraas Centre for Quantum Molecular Sciences, Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, Blindern, 0315 Oslo, Norway
    • 4Institut für Ionenphysik und Angewandte Physik, Universität Innsbruck, Technikerstr. 25, Innsbruck, 6020, Austria

    • *Present address: Gothenburg University, Gothenburg, Sweden.
    • †Contact author: klavshansen@tju.edu.cn; www.klavshansen.cn
    • ‡Present address: Sea Shepherd Global.
    • §Present address: Department of Radiation Oncology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria.
    • ∥Present address: Department of Chemistry, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan.

    Phys. Rev. Lett. 136, 048001 – Published 27 January, 2026

    DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/xrzd-135t

    Abstract

    The evaporative decay of mixed heavy and light water clusters was measured. The branching ratios of the three isotopologue molecules scale with the deuterium fraction from cluster size N=9 and up, including across the well-known shell closing at N=21, and are consistent with macroscopic surface values. Differences in the free energies of competing channels derived from the scaled distributions take the simplest possible form of a single energy parameter and the deuterium-protium mixing entropy. The observations here represent a direct observation of the isotopic mixing entropy. The energy parameter is consistent with zero point vibrational energy differences of the free and condensed water molecule for both H2O/HDO and HDO/D2O ratios.

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