- Physical Review Journals
All JournalsPhysics Magazine

Physical Review A

Reuse & Permissions

It is not necessary to obtain permission to reuse this article or its components as it is available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. This license permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided attribution to the author(s) and the published article's title, journal citation, and DOI are maintained. Please note that some figures may have been included with permission from other third parties. It is your responsibility to obtain the proper permission from the rights holder directly for these figures.

Export citation

Export citation

Choose format for download:

Download Citation
  • Perspective
  • Open Access

Perspective: Practical atom-based quantum sensors

Justin M. Brown*,†

Thad G. Walker‡

  • *Contact author: jbrown@draper.com
  • †Present Address: The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA.
  • ‡Contact author: tgwalker@wisc.edu
PDF

Phys. Rev. A 112, 040102 – Published 28 October, 2025

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/q6d1-594v

Abstract

Atomic vapors, manipulated and probed by light and other electromagnetic fields, constitute versatile and powerful quantum systems for sensing applications. Atoms are identical, isolatable, interfaceable, and intelligible. These features, coupled with the relative simplicity with which quantum properties can be exploited in state preparation and detection using modern laser and electro-optic tools, make atoms very attractive for sensing applications. This Perspective discusses the potential and process for realizing practical quantum sensors using atoms.

View figure in article

Physics Subject Headings (PhySH)

Article Text

References (295)

  1. M. S. Safronova, D. Budker, D. DeMille, D. F. J. Kimball, A. Derevianko, and C. W. Clark, Search for new physics with atoms and molecules, Rev. Mod. Phys. 90, 025008 (2018).
  2. J. Camparo, Applied atomic timekeeping in space, in 2023 IEEE/ION Position, Location and Navigation Symposium (PLANS), Monterey, CA (IEEE, Piscataway, NJ, 2023), pp. 295–310.
  3. R. T. Dupuis, T. J. Lynch, and J. R. Vaccaro, Rubidium Frequency Standard for the GPS IIF program and modifications for the RAFSMOD Program, 2008 IEEE International Frequency Control Symposium, Honolulu, HI (IEEE, Piscataway, NJ, 2008), pp. 655–660.
  4. M. Safronova and D. Budker, Focus on Quantum Sensors for New-Physics-Discoveries-Quantum Technologies and the Elephants (IOP Science Ltd., 2021).
  5. D. Demille, J. M. Doyle, and A. O. Sushkov, Probing the frontiers of particle physics with tabletop-scale experiments, Science 357, 990 (2017).
  6. P. Indelicato, QED tests with highly charged ions, J. Phys. B: At. Mol. Opt. Phys. 52, 232001 (2019).
  7. A. M. Kaufman and K. K. Ni, Quantum science with optical tweezer arrays of ultracold atoms and molecules, Nat. Phys. 17, 1324 (2021).
  8. M. S. Safronova and D. Budker, Quantum technologies and the elephants, Quantum Sci. Technol. 6, 040401 (2021).
  9. D. F. Jackson Kimball, D. Budker, T. E. Chupp, A. A. Geraci, S. Kolkowitz, J. T. Singh, and A. O. Sushkov, Probing fundamental physics with spin-based quantum sensors, Phys. Rev. A 108, 010101 (2023).
  10. C. L. Degen, F. Reinhard, and P. Cappellaro, Quantum sensing, Rev. Mod. Phys. 89, 035002 (2017).
  11. N. Aslam, H. Zhou, E. K. Urbach, M. J. Turner, R. L. Walsworth, M. D. Lukin, and H. Park, Quantum sensors for biomedical applications, Nat. Rev. Phys. 5, 157 (2023).
  12. Y. Wu and T. Weil, Recent developments of nanodiamond quantum sensors for biological applications, Adv. Sci. 9, 2200059 (2022).
  13. S. E. Crawford, R. A. Shugayev, H. P. Paudel, P. Lu, M. Syamlal, P. R. Ohodnicki, B. Chorpening, R. Gentry, and Y. Duan, Quantum sensing for energy applications: Review and perspective, Adv. Quantum Technol., 4, 2100049 (2021).
  14. S. Pirandola, B. R. Bardhan, T. Gehring, C. Weedbrook, and S. Lloyd, Advances in photonic quantum sensing, Nat. Photon 12, 724 (2018).
  15. M. Kutas, B. E. Haase, F. Riexinger, J. Hennig, P. Bickert, T. Pfeiffer, M. Bortz, D. Molter, and G. von Freymann, Quantum sensing with extreme light, Adv. Quantum Technol. 5, 2100164 (2022).
  16. A. Datta, Sensing with quantum light: A perspective, Nanophotonics 14, 1993 (2025).
  17. D. DeMille, N. R. Hutzler, A. M. Rey, and T. Zelevinsky, Quantum sensing and metrology for fundamental physics with molecules, Nat. Phys. 20, 741 (2024).
  18. C. J. Yu, S. Von Kugelgen, D. W. Laorenza, and D. E. Freedman, A molecular approach to quantum sensing, ACS Central Sci. 7, 712 (2021).
  19. Z. Zhang and Q. Zhuang, Distributed quantum sensing, Quantum Sci. Technol. 6, 043001 (2021).
  20. S. D. Bass and M. Doser, Quantum sensing for particle physics, Nat. Rev. Phys. 6, 329 (2024).
  21. R. Feynman, QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter (Princeton University Press, 1985).
  22. P. A. Dirac, Note on the Doppler principle and Bohr's frequency condition, Math. Proc. Cambridge Philos. Soc. 22, 432 (1924).
  23. W. Happer, Optical pumping, Rev. Mod. Phys. 44, 169 (1972).
  24. W. Happer and W. A. Van Wijngaarden, An optical pumping primer, Hyperfine Interact. 38, 435 (1987).
  25. H. William, Y.-Y. Jau, and T. G. Walker, Optically Pumped Atoms (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co., Weinheim, 2010).
  26. M. Auzinsh, D. Budker, and S. Rochester, Optically Polarized Atoms (Oxford University Press, 2010).
  27. C. S. Adams, J. D. Pritchard, and J. P. Shaffer, Rydberg atom quantum technologies, J. Phys. B: At. Mol. Opt. Phys. 53, 012002 (2020).
  28. I. I. Ryabtsev, I. I. Beterov, D. B. Tretyakov, V. M. Entin, and E. A. Yakshina, Doppler- and recoil-free laser excitation of Rydberg states via three-photon transitions, Phys. Rev. A 84, 053409 (2011).
  29. F. Schreck and K. van Druten, Laser cooling for quantum gases, Nat. Phys. 17, 1296 (2021).
  30. A. Urvoy, Z. Vendeiro, J. Ramette, A. Adiyatullin, and V. Vuletić, Direct laser cooling to Bose-Einstein condensation in a dipole trap, Phys. Rev. Lett. 122, 203202 (2019).
  31. Z. Vendeiro, J. Ramette, A. Rudelis, M. Chong, J. Sinclair, L. Stewart, A. Urvoy, and V. Vuletić, Machine-learning-accelerated Bose-Einstein condensation, Phys. Rev. Res. 4, 043216 (2022).
  32. M. Hetzel, M. Quensen, J. S. Haase, and C. Klempt, All-optical production of Bose-Einstein condensates with a 2-Hz repetition rate, Phys. Rev. A 111, L061301 (2025).
  33. Experts disagree on whether there are significant distinctions between CPT and EIT. Compare, for example, Refs. [34] and [293].
  34. R. Finkelstein, S. Bali, O. Firstenberg, and I. Novikova, A practical guide to electromagnetically induced transparency in atomic vapor, New J. Phys. 25, 035001 (2023).
  35. R. Lutwak, A. Rashed, M. Varghese, G. Tepolt, J. Leblanc, M. Mescher, D. K. Serkland, K. M. Geib, and G. M. Peake, CSAC–the chip-scale atomic clock, in Frequency Standards and Metrology (World Scientific, 2009), pp. 454–462.
  36. R. Wynands and S. Weyers, Atomic fountain clocks, Metrologia, 42, S64 (2005).
  37. K. W. Martin, G. Phelps, N. D. Lemke, M. S. Bigelow, B. Stuhl, M. Wojcik, M. Holt, I. Coddington, M. W. Bishop, and J. H. Burke, Compact optical atomic clock based on a two-photon transition in rubidium, Phys. Rev. Appl. 9, 014019 (2018).
  38. V. Maurice, Z. L. Newman, S. Dickerson, M. Rivers, J. Hsiao, P. Greene, M. Mescher, J. Kitching, M. T. Hummon, and C. Johnson, Miniaturized optical frequency reference for next-generation portable optical clocks, Opt. Express 28, 24708 (2020).
  39. Optical Magnetometry, edited by D. Budker and D. F. Jackson Kimball (Cambridge University Press, 2013).
  40. K. Bongs, M. Holynski, J. Vovrosh, P. Bouyer, G. Condon, E. Rasel, C. Schubert, W. P. Schleich, and A. Roura, Taking atom interferometric quantum sensors from the laboratory to real-world applications, Nat. Rev. Phys. 1, 731 (2019).
  41. Z. Wu, Wall interactions of spin-polarized atoms, Rev. Mod. Phys. 93, 035006 (2021).
  42. H. Chi, W. Quan, J. Zhang, L. Zhao, and J. Fang, Advances in anti-relaxation coatings of alkali-metal vapor cells, Appl. Surf. Sci. 501, 143897 (2020).
  43. D. Sheng, A. Kabcenell, and M. V. Romalis, New classes of systematic effects in gas spin comagnetometers, Phys. Rev. Lett. 113, 163002 (2014).
  44. C. Solaro, A. Bonnin, F. Combes, M. Lopez, X. Alauze, J. N. Fuchs, F. Piéchon, and F. Pereira Dos Santos, Competition between spin echo and spin self-rephasing in a trapped atom interferometer, Phys. Rev. Lett. 117, 163003 (2016).
  45. M. Arditi and T. R. Carver, Pressure, light, and temperature shifts in optical detection of 0-0 hyperfine resonance of alkali metals, Phys. Rev. 124, 800 (1961).
  46. L. C. Ha, X. Zhang, N. Dao, and K. R. Overstreet, D1 line broadening and hyperfine frequency shift coefficients for Rb87 and Cs133 in Ne, Ar, and N2, Phys. Rev. A 103, 022826 (2021).
  47. W. Happer and A. C. Tam, Effect of rapid spin exchange on the magnetic-resonance spectrum of alkali vapors, Phys. Rev. A 16, 1877 (1977).
  48. J. C. Allred, R. N. Lyman, T. W. Kornack, and M. V. Romalis, High-sensitivity atomic magnetometer unaffected by spin-exchange relaxation, Phys. Rev. Lett. 89, 130801 (2002).
  49. O. Katz and O. Firstenberg, Light storage for one second in room-temperature alkali vapor, Nat. Commun. 9, 2074 (2018).
  50. Y.-Y. Jau, A. B. Post, N. N. Kuzma, A. M. Braun, M. V. Romalis, and W. Happer, Intense, narrow atomic-clock resonances, Phys. Rev. Lett. 92, 110801 (2004).
  51. C. Kiehl, D. Wagner, T.-W. Hsu, S. Knappe, C. A. Regal, and T. Thiele, Coherence of Rabi oscillations with spin exchange, Phys. Rev. Res. 5, L012002 (2023).
  52. N. Belcher, E. E. Mikhailov, and I. Novikova, Atomic clocks and coherent population trapping: Experiments for undergraduate laboratories, Am. J. Phys. 77, 988 (2009).
  53. J. Vanier, Atomic clocks based on coherent population trapping: A review, Appl. Phys. B 81, 421 (2005).
  54. https://rydiqule.readthedocs.io/en/latest/.
  55. https://arc-alkali-rydberg-calculator.readthedocs.io/en/latest/.
  56. https://www.rochesterscientific.com/ADM/.
  57. L. A. Downes, L. Torralbo-Campo, and K. J. Weatherill, A practical guide to terahertz imaging using thermal atomic vapour, New J. Phys. 25, 035002 (2023).
  58. D. Pizzey, J. D. Briscoe, F. D. Logue, F. S. Ponciano-Ojeda, S. A. Wrathmall, and I. G. Hughes, Laser spectroscopy of hot atomic vapours: From 'scope to theoretical fit, New J. Phys. 24, 125001 (2022).
  59. H. G. Dehmelt, Proposed 1014Δν≪ν laser fluorescence spectroscopy on Tl+ mono ion oscillator II, Bull. Am. J. Phys. Soc. 20, 1521 (1975).
  60. W. Nagourney, I. Sandberg, and H. Dehmelt, Shelved optical electron amplifier: Observation of quantum jumps, Phys. Rev. Lett. 56, 2797 (1986).
  61. A. Kuzmich, N. P. Bigelow, and L. Mandel, Atomic quantum non-demolition measurements and squeezing, Europhys. Lett. 42, 481 (1998).
  62. S. Li, P. Vachaspati, D. Sheng, N. Dural, and M. V. Romalis, Optical rotation in excess of 100 rad generated by Rb vapor in a multipass cell, Phys. Rev. A 84, 061403(R) (2011).
  63. D. Sheng, S. Li, N. Dural, and M. V. Romalis, Subfemtotesla scalar atomic magnetometry using multipass cells, Phys. Rev. Lett. 110, 160802 (2013).
  64. D. Budker and M. G. Kozlov, Sensing: Equation one, Opt. Mem. Neural Networks 32, S409 (2023).
  65. While SWaP is commonly used, some in the space community prefer to reference an object's mass over its weight, leading to the size, mass, and power (SMaP) acronym.
  66. K. Henderson, C. Ryu, C. MacCormick, and M. G. Boshier, Experimental demonstration of painting arbitrary and dynamic potentials for Bose-Einstein condensates, New J. Phys. 11, 043030 (2009).
  67. L. Amico, M. Boshier, G. Birkl, A. Minguzzi, C. Miniatura, L.-C. Kwek, D. Aghamalyan, V. Ahufinger, D. Anderson, N. Andrei, A. S. Arnold, M. Baker, T. A. Bell, T. Bland, J. P. Brantut, D. Cassettari, W. J. Chetcuti, F. Chevy, R. Citro, S. D. Palo et al., Roadmap on atomtronics: State of the art and perspective, AVS Quantum Sci. 3, 039201 (2021).
  68. A. Calaprice and F. Dyson, The Ultimate Quotable Einstein (Princeton University Press, 2019).
  69. https://iontrap.duke.edu/resources/ion-periodic-table/.
  70. A. Bauch, Caesium atomic clocks: function, performance and applications, Meas. Sci. Technol 14, 1159 (2003).
  71. N. F. Ramsey, Thermal beam sources, in Experimental Methods in the Physical Sciences, edited by F. Dunning and R. G. Hulet (Academic Press, 1996), Vol. 29, Chap. 1, pp. 1–20.
  72. W. C. Campbell and P. Hamilton, Rotation sensing with trapped ions, J. Phys. B: At. Mol. Opt. Phys. 50, 064002 (2017).
  73. In a vapor cell accelerometer [294], velocity-changing collisions reduce its sensitivity.
  74. R. W. Fox, J. A. Sherman, W. Douglas, J. B. Olson, A. D. Ludlow, and C. W. Oates, A high stability optical frequency reference based on thermal calcium atoms, in 2012 IEEE International Frequency Control Symposium Proceedings (IEEE, Baltimore, 2012).
  75. H. Shang, X. Zhang, S. Zhang, D. Pan, H. Chen, and J. Chen, Miniaturized calcium beam optical frequency standard using fully-sealed vacuum tube with 10−15 instability, Opt. Express 25, 30459 (2017).
  76. W. G. Tobias, B. Hemingway, and S. Peil, Cold beam optical clock with multifrequency spectroscopy, Phys. Rev. Lett. 134, 043401 (2025).
  77. M. Mills, P. Puri, Y. Yu, A. Derevianko, C. Schneider, and E. R. Hudson, Efficient repumping of a Ca magneto-optical trap, Phys. Rev. A 96, 033402 (2017).
  78. G. D. Martinez, C. Li, A. Staron, J. Kitching, C. Raman, and W. R. McGehee, A chip-scale atomic beam clock, Nat. Commun. 14, 3501 (2023).
  79. J. M. Kwolek and A. T. Black, Continuous sub-Doppler-cooled atomic beam interferometer for inertial sensing, Phys. Rev. Appl. 17, 024061 (2022).
  80. N. F. Ramsey, Experiments with separated oscillatory fields and hydrogen masers, Rev. Mod. Phys. 62, 541 (1990).
  81. C. C. Chen, R. González Escudero, J. Minář, B. Pasquiou, S. Bennetts, and F. Schreck, Continuous Bose–Einstein condensation, Nature (London) 606, 683 (2022).
  82. Frequency-doubled fiber lasers are also leveraged to some extent.
  83. For instance, the detector white noise floor contributes over its full bandwidth, so a detector bandwidth ≫ measurement bandwidth leads to additional rms noise contributions in the measurement.
  84. J. Graeme, Photodiode Amplifiers (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1996).
  85. P. C. D. Hobbs, Building Electro-Optical Systems, 2nd ed. (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, 2009).
  86. Using common jargon, “physics package'' refers to the container for the atomic vapor. As the physics of the measurement requires the light generation, interaction, and readout, here we consider the entire sensor unit to be the package.
  87. A practical advantage occurs when thermal regulation is set above the environmental temperature range. Stability is maintained at all environmental temperatures with feedback engaged, and unnecessary power losses are avoided as heating requires less energy than cooling.
  88. C. Janvier, V. Ménoret, B. Desruelle, S. Merlet, A. Landragin, and F. Pereira Dos Santos, Compact differential gravimeter at the quantum projection-noise limit, Phys. Rev. A 105, 022801 (2022).
  89. F. Sorrentino, Q. Bodart, L. Cacciapuoti, Y. H. Lien, M. Prevedelli, G. Rosi, L. Salvi, and G. M. Tino, Sensitivity limits of a Raman atom interferometer as a gravity gradiometer, Phys. Rev. A 89, 023607 (2014).
  90. S. Chu, The manipulation of neutral particles, Rev. Mod. Phys. 70, 685 (1998).
  91. G. Kestler, K. Ton, and J. T. Barreiro, Optical-atomic system integration and calibration: Pumping from 1 atm to 1×10−11 torr in 24 h, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 95, 103201 (2024).
  92. A more detailed accounting of the early SERF history is provided in Ref. [295].
  93. T. W. Kornack, S. J. Smullin, S. K. Lee, and M. V. Romalis, A low-noise ferrite magnetic shield, Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 223501 (2007).
  94. R. Mhaskar, S. Knappe, and J. Kitching, A low-power, high-sensitivity micromachined optical magnetometer, Appl. Phys. Lett. 101, 241105 (2012).
  95. S. J. Smullin, T. W. Kornack, G. Vasilakis, and M. V. Romalis, A second-generation co-magnetometer for testing fundamental symmetries, in CPT and Lorentz Symmetry - Proceedings of the Fourth Meeting, edited by V. A. Kostelecky (World Scientific, 2008).
  96. Z. Li, R. T. Wakai, and T. G. Walker, Parametric modulation of an atomic magnetometer, Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 134105 (2006).
  97. Twinleaf, QuSpin, and Fieldline, to name a few.
  98. I. K. Kominis, T. W. Kornack, J. C. Allred, and M. V. Romalis, A subfemtotesla multichannel atomic magnetometer, Nature (London) 422, 596 (2003).
  99. H. Xia, A. Ben-Amar Baranga, D. Hoffman, and M. V. Romalis, Magnetoencephalography with an atomic magnetometer, Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 211104 (2006).
  100. R. Wyllie, M. Kauer, R. T. Wakai, and T. G. Walker, Optical magnetometer array for fetal magnetocardiography, Opt. Lett. 37, 2247 (2012).
  101. R. Wyllie, M. Kauer, G. S. Smetana, R. T. Wakai, and T. G. Walker, Magnetocardiography with a modular spin-exchange relaxation-free atomic magnetometer array, Phys. Med. Biol. 57, 2619 (2012).
  102. P. D. Schwindt, S. Knappe, V. Shah, L. Hollberg, J. Kitching, L. A. Liew, and J. Moreland, Chip-scale atomic magnetometer, Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 6409 (2004).
  103. P. D. Schwindt, B. Lindseth, S. Knappe, V. Shah, J. Kitching, and L. A. Liew, Chip-scale atomic magnetometer with improved sensitivity by use of the MX technique, Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 081102 (2007).
  104. V. Shah, S. Knappe, P. D. Schwindt, and J. Kitching, Subpicotesla atomic magnetometry with a microfabricated vapour cell, Nat. Photon. 1, 649 (2007).
  105. M. P. Ledbetter, I. M. Savukov, D. Budker, V. Shah, S. Knappe, J. Kitching, D. J. Michalak, S. Xu, and A. Pines, Zero-field remote detection of NMR with a microfabricated atomic magnetometer, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105, 2286 (2008).
  106. V. Shah and M. V. Romalis, Spin-exchange relaxation-free magnetometry using elliptically polarized light, Phys. Rev. A 80, 013416 (2009).
  107. C. Johnson, P. D. Schwindt, and M. Weisend, Magnetoencephalography with a two-color pump-probe, fiber-coupled atomic magnetometer, Appl. Phys. Lett. 97, 243703 (2010).
  108. W. E. Avera, P. C. Gallacher, W. J. Teague, R. Liang, and J. B. Nelson, Magnetic noise associated with ocean internal waves, in OCEANS 2009 (IEEE, Biloxi, 2009).
  109. C. Constable, Earth's electromagnetic environment, Surv. Geophys. 37, 27 (2016).
  110. A. Gelb, Applied Optimal Analysis (The M.I.T. Press, 1974).
  111. J. Kohler et al., Development of a STRAP-DOWN, absolute atomic gravimeter for map-matching navigation, in IEEE International Symposium on Inertial Sensors & Systems (Kaua'i, Hawaii, 2023).
  112. A. Canciani and J. Raquet, Airborne magnetic anomaly navigation, IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst. 53, 67 (2017).
  113. A. J. Canciani, Magnetic navigation on an F-16 Aircraft using online calibration, IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst. 58, 420 (2022).
  114. H. Müntinga, H. Ahlers, M. Krutzik, A. Wenzlawski, S. Arnold, D. Becker, K. Bongs, H. Dittus, H. Duncker, N. Gaaloul, C. Gherasim, E. Giese, C. Grzeschik, T. W. Hänsch, O. Hellmig, W. Herr, S. Herrmann, E. Kajari, S. Kleinert, C. Lämmerzahl et al., Interferometry with Bose-Einstein condensates in microgravity, Phys. Rev. Lett. 110, 093602 (2013).
  115. M. D. Lachmann, H. Ahlers, D. Becker, A. N. Dinkelaker, J. Grosse, O. Hellmig, H. Müntinga, V. Schkolnik, S. T. Seidel, T. Wendrich, A. Wenzlawski, B. Carrick, N. Gaaloul, D. Lüdtke, C. Braxmaier, W. Ertmer, M. Krutzik, C. Lämmerzahl, A. Peters, W. P. Schleich et al., Ultracold atom interferometry in space, Nat. Commun. 12, 1317 (2021).
  116. M. Raudonis, Microgravity facilities for cold atom experiments, Quantum Sci. Technol. 8, 044001 (2023).
  117. D. C. Aveline, J. R. Williams, E. R. Elliott, C. Dutenhoffer, J. R. Kellogg, J. M. Kohel, N. E. Lay, K. Oudrhiri, R. F. Shotwell, N. Yu, and R. J. Thompson, Observation of Bose–Einstein condensates in an earth-orbiting research lab, Nature (London) 582, 193 (2020).
  118. K. Frye, S. Abend, W. Bartosch, A. Bawamia, D. Becker, H. Blume, C. Braxmaier, S. W. Chiow, M. A. Efremov, W. Ertmer, P. Fierlinger, T. Franz, N. Gaaloul, J. Grosse, C. Grzeschik, O. Hellmig, V. A. Henderson, W. Herr, U. Israelsson, J. Kohel et al., The Bose-Einstein condensate and cold atom laboratory, EPJ Quantum Technol. 8, 1 (2021).
  119. W. F. McGrew, X. Zhang, R. J. Fasano, S. A. Schäffer, K. Beloy, D. Nicolodi, R. C. Brown, N. Hinkley, G. Milani, M. Schioppo, T. H. Yoon, and A. D. Ludlow, Atomic clock performance enabling geodesy below the centimetre level, Nature (London) 564, 87 (2018).
  120. X. Zheng, J. Dolde, V. Lochab, B. N. Merriman, H. Li, and S. Kolkowitz, Differential clock comparisons with a multiplexed optical lattice clock, Nature (London) 602, 425 (2022).
  121. T. Bothwell, C. J. Kennedy, A. Aeppli, D. Kedar, J. M. Robinson, E. Oelker, A. Staron, and J. Ye, Resolving the gravitational redshift across a millimetre-scale atomic sample, Nature (London) 602, 420 (2022).
  122. M. Takamoto, Y. Tanaka, and H. Katori, A perspective on the future of transportable optical lattice clocks, Appl. Phys. Lett. 120, 140502 (2022).
  123. S. B. Koller, J. Grotti, S. Vogt, A. Al-Masoudi, S. Dörscher, S. Häfner, U. Sterr, and C. Lisdat, Transportable optical lattice clock with 7×1017 uncertainty, Phys. Rev. Lett. 118, 073601 (2017).
  124. J. Grotti, S. Koller, S. Vogt, S. Häfner, U. Sterr, C. Lisdat, H. Denker, C. Voigt, L. Timmen, A. Rolland, F. N. Baynes, H. S. Margolis, M. Zampaolo, P. Thoumany, M. Pizzocaro, B. Rauf, F. Bregolin, A. Tampellini, P. Barbieri, M. Zucco et al., Geodesy and metrology with a transportable optical clock, Nat. Phys. 14, 437 (2018).
  125. J. Grotti, I. Nosske, S. B. Koller, S. Herbers, H. Denker, L. Timmen, G. Vishnyakova, G. Grosche, T. Waterholter, A. Kuhl, S. Koke, E. Benkler, M. Giunta, L. Maisenbacher, A. Matveev, S. Dörscher, R. Schwarz, A. Al-Masoudi, T. W. Hänsch, T. Udem et al., Long-distance chronometric leveling with a portable optical clock, Phys. Rev. Appl. 21, L061001 (2024).
  126. J. D. Roslund, A. Cingöz, W. D. Lunden, G. B. Partridge, A. S. Kowligy, F. Roller, D. B. Sheredy, G. E. Skulason, J. P. Song, J. R. Abo-Shaeer, and M. M. Boyd, Optical clocks at sea, Nature (London) 628, 736 (2024).
  127. R. Lutwak, A. Rashed, M. Varghese, G. Tepolt, J. Leblanc, M. Mescher, D. K. Serkland, K. M. Geib, G. M. Peake, and S. Romisch, The chip-scale atomic clock - prototype evaluation, in Proceedings of the 39th Annual Precise Time and Time Interval Meeting (ION, Long Beach, California, 2007), pp. 269–290.
  128. L. C. Ha, J. Noble, B. Newell, and R. Lutwak, High-Temperature chip-scale atomic clock, in Journal of Physics: Conference Series (Institute of Physics, 2024), Vol. 2889.
  129. M. Schmidt, M. Prevedelli, A. Giorgini, G. M. Tino, and A. Peters, A portable laser system for high-precision atom interferometry experiments, Appl. Phys. B 102, 11 (2011).
  130. J. Pahl, A. N. Dinkelaker, C. Grzeschik, J. Kluge, M. Schiemangk, A. Wicht, A. Peters, and M. Krutzik, Compact and robust diode laser system technology for dual-species ultracold atom experiments with rubidium and potassium in microgravity, Appl. Opt. 58, 5456 (2019).
  131. V. Schkolnik, O. Hellmig, A. Wenzlawski, J. Grosse, A. Kohfeldt, K. Döringshoff, A. Wicht, P. Windpassinger, K. Sengstock, C. Braxmaier, M. Krutzik, and A. Peters, A compact and robust diode laser system for atom interferometry on a sounding rocket, Appl. Phys. B 122, 217 (2016).
  132. C. Diboune, N. Zahzam, Y. Bidel, M. Cadoret, and A. Bresson, Multi-line fiber laser system for cesium and rubidium atom interferometry, Opt. Express 25, 16898 (2017).
  133. B. N. Jiang, Low noise phase-locked laser system for atom interferometry, Appl. Phys. B: Lasers Opt. 128, 71 (2022).
  134. QED-C - photonic integrated circuits for quantum applications (2023), https://quantumconsortium.org/publication/pics23/.
  135. C. P. Dietrich, A. Fiore, M. G. Thompson, M. Kamp, and S. Höfling, GaAs integrated quantum photonics: Towards compact and multi-functional quantum photonic integrated circuits, Laser Photonics Rev. 10, 870 (2016).
  136. D. J. Blumenthal, R. Heideman, D. Geuzebroek, A. Leinse, and C. Roeloffzen, Silicon nitride in silicon photonics, Proc. IEEE 106, 2209 (2018).
  137. D. Zhu, L. Shao, M. Yu, R. Cheng, B. Desiatov, C. J. Xin, Y. Hu, J. Holzgrafe, S. Ghosh, A. Shams-Ansari, E. Puma, N. Sinclair, C. Reimer, M. Zhang, and M. Lončar, Integrated photonics on thin-film lithium niobate, Adv. Opt. Photon. 13, 242 (2021).
  138. P. L. McMahon, The physics of optical computing, Nat. Rev. Phys. 5, 717 (2023).
  139. H. Tian, J. Liu, A. Siddharth, R. N. Wang, T. Blésin, J. He, T. J. Kippenberg, and S. A. Bhave, Magnetic-free silicon nitride integrated optical isolator, Nat. Photon. 15, 828 (2021).
  140. D. B. Sohn, O. E. Örsel, and G. Bahl, Electrically driven optical isolation through phonon-mediated photonic Autler–Townes splitting, Nat. Photon. 15, 822 (2021).
  141. A. D. White, G. H. Ahn, K. V. Gasse, K. Y. Yang, L. Chang, J. E. Bowers, and J. Vučković, Integrated passive nonlinear optical isolators, Nat. Photon. 17, 143 (2023).
  142. S. Arafin, A. Simsek, M. Lu, M. J. Rodwell, and L. A. Coldren, Heterodyne locking of a fully integrated optical phase-locked loop with on-chip modulators, Opt. Lett. 42, 3745 (2017).
  143. W. Loh, A. A. S. Green, F. N. Baynes, D. C. Cole, F. J. Quinlan, H. Lee, K. J. Vahala, S. B. Papp, and S. A. Diddams, Dual-microcavity narrow-linewidth Brillouin laser, Optica 2, 225 (2015).
  144. S. Gundavarapu, G. M. Brodnik, M. Puckett, T. Huffman, D. Bose, R. Behunin, J. Wu, T. Qiu, C. Pinho, N. Chauhan, J. Nohava, P. T. Rakich, K. D. Nelson, M. Salit, and D. J. Blumenthal, Sub-hertz fundamental linewidth photonic integrated Brillouin laser, Nat. Photon. 13, 60 (2019).
  145. M. T. Hummon, S. Kang, D. G. Bopp, Q. Li, D. A. Westly, S. Kim, C. Fredrick, S. A. Diddams, K. Srinivasan, V. Aksyuk, and J. E. Kitching, Photonic chip for laser stabilization to an atomic vapor with 10−11 instability, Optica 5, 443 (2018).
  146. N. Chauhan, C. Caron, J. Wang, A. Isichenko, N. Helaly, K. Liu, R. J. Niffenegger, and D. J. Blumenthal, Trapped ion qubit and clock operations with a visible wavelength photonic coil resonator stabilized integrated Brillouin laser, arXiv:2402.16742.
  147. X. Wu, F. Zi, J. Dudley, R. J. Bilotta, P. Canoza, and H. Müller, Multiaxis atom interferometry with a single-diode laser and a pyramidal magneto-optical trap, Optica 4, 1545 (2017).
  148. A. López-Vázquez, M. A. Maldonado, E. Gomez, N. V. Corzo, E. de Carlos-López, J. A. Franco Villafañe, K. Jiménez-García, J. Jiménez-Mier, J. L. López-González, C. J. López-Monjaraz, J. M. López-Romero, A. Medina Herrera, R. Méndez-Fragoso, C. A. Ortiz, H. Peña, J. G. Raboño Borbolla, F. Ramírez-Martínez, and V. M. Valenzuela, Compact laser modulation system for a transportable atomic gravimeter, Opt. Express 31, 3504 (2023).
  149. F. Theron, O. Carraz, G. Renon, N. Zahzam, Y. Bidel, M. Cadoret, and A. Bresson, Narrow linewidth single laser source system for onboard atom interferometry, Appl. Phys. B 118, 1 (2015).
  150. P. Zhou, W. Quan, K. Wei, Z. Liang, J. Hu, L. Liu, G. Hu, A. Wang, and M. Ye, Application of VCSEL in bio-sensing atomic magnetometers, Biosensors 12, 1098 (2022).
  151. C. Ropp, W. Zhu, A. Yulaev, D. Westly, G. Simelgor, A. Rakholia, W. Lunden, D. Sheredy, M. M. Boyd, S. Papp, A. Agrawal, and V. Aksyuk, Integrating planar photonics for multi-beam generation and atomic clock packaging on chip, Light Sci. Appl. 12, 83 (2023).
  152. M. Huang, D. K. Serkland, and J. Camparo, A narrow-linewidth three-mirror VCSEL for atomic devices, Appl. Phys. Lett. 121, 114002 (2022).
  153. C. Monroe, W. Swann, H. Robinson, and C. Wieman, Very cold trapped atoms in a vapor cell, Phys. Rev. Lett. 65, 1571 (1990).
  154. H. J. Lewandowski, D. M. Harber, D. L. Whitaker, and E. A. Cornell, Simplified system for creating a Bose-Einstein condensate, J. Low Temp. Phys. 132, 309 (2003).
  155. D. M. Farkas, K. M. Hudek, E. A. Salim, S. R. Segal, M. B. Squires, and D. Z. Anderson, A compact, transportable, microchip-based system for high repetition rate production of Bose-Einstein condensates, Appl. Phys. Lett. 96, 093102 (2010).
  156. B. J. Little, G. W. Hoth, J. Christensen, C. Walker, D. J. De Smet, G. W. Biedermann, J. Lee, and P. D. D. Schwindt, A passively pumped vacuum package sustaining cold atoms for more than 200 days, AVS Quantum Sci. 3, 035001 (2021).
  157. A. T. Dellis, E. A. Donley, J. Kitching, S. Knappe, and V. Shah, Low helium permeation cells for atomic microsystems technology, Opt. Lett. 41, 2775 (2016).
  158. O. S. Burrow, P. F. Osborn, E. Boughton, F. Mirando, D. P. Burt, P. F. Griffin, A. S. Arnold, and E. Riis, Stand-alone vacuum cell for compact ultracold quantum technologies, Appl. Phys. Lett. 119, 124002 (2021).
  159. Y. Y. Jau, H. Partner, P. D. Schwindt, J. D. Prestage, J. R. Kellogg, and N. Yu, Low-power, miniature Yb171 ion clock using an ultra-small vacuum package, Appl. Phys. Lett. 101, 253518 (2012).
  160. P. D. Schwindt, Y. Y. Jau, H. Partner, A. Casias, A. R. Wagner, M. Moorman, R. P. Manginell, J. R. Kellogg, and J. D. Prestage, A highly miniaturized vacuum package for a trapped ion atomic clock, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 87, 053112 (2016).
  161. D. R. Scherer, C. D. Boschen, J. Noble, M. Silveira, D. Taylor, J. Tallant, K. R. Overstreet, and S. R. Stein, Analysis of short-term stability of miniature 171Yb+ buffer gas cooled trapped ion clock, in Proceedings of the 49th Annual Precise Time and Time Interval Systems and Applications Meeting (ION, Reston, Virginia, 2018), pp. 95–99.
  162. J. P. McGilligan, K. R. Moore, A. Dellis, G. D. Martinez, E. De Clercq, P. F. Griffin, A. S. Arnold, E. Riis, R. Boudot, and J. Kitching, Laser cooling in a chip-scale platform, Appl. Phys. Lett. 117, 054001 (2020).
  163. D. A. Thrasher and P. D. D. Schwindt, Performance of 3cm3 ion trap vacuum package sealed for 10 years, Appl. Phys. Lett. 126, 134004 (2025).
  164. J. Fortagh, A. Grossmann, T. W. Hänsch, and C. Zimmermann, Fast loading of a magneto-optical trap from a pulsed thermal source, J. Appl. Phys. 84, 6499 (1998).
  165. F. Gong, Y. Y. Jau, K. Jensen, and W. Happer, Electrolytic fabrication of atomic clock cells, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 77, 076101 (2006).
  166. D. R. Scherer, D. B. Fenner, and J. M. Hensley, Characterization of alkali metal dispensers and non-evaporable getter pumps in ultrahigh vacuum systems for cold atomic sensors, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 30, 061602 (2012).
  167. J. J. Bernstein, A. Whale, J. Brown, C. Johnson, E. Cook, L. Calvez, X. Zhang, and S. W. Martin, Solid state electrochemical alkali sources for cold atom sensing, in Proceedings of the Solid-State Sensors, Acutators, and Microsystems Workshop (2016).
  168. S. Kang, R. P. Mott, K. A. Gilmore, L. D. Sorenson, M. T. Rakher, E. A. Donley, J. Kitching, and C. S. Roper, A low-power reversible alkali atom source, Appl. Phys. Lett. 110, 244101 (2017).
  169. S. Kang, K. R. Moore, J. P. McGilligan, R. Mott, A. Mis, C. Roper, E. A. Donley, and J. Kitching, Magneto-optic trap using a reversible, solid-state alkali-metal source, Opt. Lett. 44, 3002 (2019).
  170. K. R. Rusimova, D. Slavov, F. Pradaux-Caggiano, J. T. Collins, S. N. Gordeev, D. R. Carbery, W. J. Wadsworth, P. J. Mosley, and V. K. Valev, Atomic dispensers for thermoplasmonic control of alkali vapor pressure in quantum optical applications, Nat. Commun. 10, 2328 (2019).
  171. R. N. Kohn, M. S. Bigelow, M. Spanjers, B. K. Stuhl, B. L. Kasch, S. E. Olson, E. A. Imhof, D. A. Hostutler, and M. B. Squires, Clean, robust alkali sources by intercalation within highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 91, 035108 (2020).
  172. J. P. McGilligan, K. R. Moore, S. Kang, R. Mott, A. Mis, C. Roper, E. A. Donley, and J. Kitching, Dynamic characterization of an alkali-ion battery as a source for laser-cooled atoms, Phys. Rev. Appl. 13, 044038 (2020).
  173. K. Ishikawa, Vapor pressure of alkali-metal binary alloys in glass cells, Calphad 59, 40 (2017).
  174. J. P. McGilligan, K. Gallacher, P. F. Griffin, D. J. Paul, A. S. Arnold, and E. Riis, Micro-fabricated components for cold atom sensors, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 93, 091101 (2022).
  175. A. Skljarow, N. Gruhler, W. Pernice, H. Kuebler, T. Pfau, R. Loew, and H. Alaeian, Integrating two-photon nonlinear spectroscopy of rubidium atoms with silicon photonics, Opt. Express 28, 19593 (2020).
  176. R. M. Noor, M. H. Asadian, and A. M. Shkel, Design considerations for micro-glassblown atomic vapor cells, J. Microelectromech. Syst. 29, 25 (2020).
  177. A. Laliotis, S. Villalba, and H. Failache, Simple fabrication of miniaturized glass cells for atomic vapor spectroscopy, Appl. Phys. A 128, 433 (2022).
  178. S. Karlen, J. Haesler, T. Overstolz, G. Bergonzi, and S. Lecomte, Sealing of MEMS atomic vapor cells using Cu-Cu thermocompression bonding, J. Microelectromech. Syst. 29, 95 (2020).
  179. J. M. Pate, J. Kitching, and M. T. Hummon, Microfabricated strontium atomic vapor cells, Opt. Lett. 48, 383 (2023).
  180. D. G. Bopp, V. M. Maurice, and J. E. Kitching, Wafer-level fabrication of alkali vapor cells using in-situ atomic deposition, J. Phys. Photonics 3, 015002 (2021).
  181. https://www.microchip.com/en-us/product/csac-sa65.
  182. https://www.infleqtion.com/tiqker.
  183. S. Kadlecek, L. W. Anderson, and T. G. Walker, Field dependence of spin relaxation in a dense Rb vapor, Phys. Rev. Lett. 80, 5512 (1998).
  184. O. Alem, K. J. Hughes, I. Buard, T. P. Cheung, T. Maydew, A. Griesshammer, K. Holloway, A. Park, V. Lechuga, C. Coolidge, M. Gerginov, E. Quigg, A. Seames, E. Kronberg, P. Teale, and S. Knappe, An integrated full-head OPM-MEG system based on 128 zero-field sensors, Front. Neurosci. 17, 1190310 (2023).
  185. O. Alem, R. Mhaskar, R. Jiménez-Martínez, D. Sheng, J. LeBlanc, L. Trahms, T. Sander, J. Kitching, and S. Knappe, Magnetic field imaging with microfabricated optically-pumped magnetometers, Opt. Express 25, 7849 (2017).
  186. J. Kitching, Chip-scale atomic devices, Appl. Phys. Rev. 5, 031302 (2018).
  187. For example, the de Broglie wavelength of room temperature thermal atoms λdB≈20 pm can be extended to λdB≈20 nm for laser-cooled atoms following the inverse proportionality to the momentum (square root of the kinetic energy) λdB=h/p=h/2mE.
  188. C. Overstreet, P. Asenbaum, and M. A. Kasevich, Physically significant phase shifts in matter-wave interferometry, Am. J. Phys. 89, 324 (2021).
  189. S. Y. Lan, P. C. Kuan, B. Estey, P. Haslinger, and H. Müller, Influence of the Coriolis force in atom interferometry, Phys. Rev. Lett. 108, 090402 (2012).
  190. Two simultaneous, counter-propagating interferometers with overlapping trajectories can separate the acceleration and rotation by computing Δϕ1+Δϕ2 and Δϕ1−Δϕ2.
  191. J. Lautier, L. Volodimer, T. Hardin, S. Merlet, M. Lours, F. Pereira Dos Santos, and A. Landragin, Hybridizing matter-wave and classical accelerometers, Appl. Phys. Lett. 105, 144102 (2014).
  192. J. Lee, R. Ding, J. Christensen, R. R. Rosenthal, A. Ison, D. P. Gillund, D. Bossert, K. H. Fuerschbach, W. Kindel, P. S. Finnegan, J. R. Wendt, M. Gehl, A. Kodigala, H. McGuinness, C. A. Walker, S. A. Kemme, A. Lentine, G. Biedermann, and P. D. Schwindt, A compact cold-atom interferometer with a high data-rate grating magneto-optical trap and a photonic-integrated-circuit-compatible laser system, Nat. Commun. 13, 5131 (2022).
  193. H. J. McGuinness, A. V. Rakholia, and G. W. Biedermann, High data-rate atom interferometer for measuring acceleration, Appl. Phys. Lett. 100, 011106 (2012).
  194. A. Kodigala, M. Gehl, G. W. Hoth, J. Lee, C. T. Derose, A. Pomerene, C. Dallo, D. Trotter, A. L. Starbuck, G. Biedermann, P. D. D. Schwindt, and A. L. Lentine, High-performance silicon photonic single-sideband modulators for cold-atom interferometry, Sci. Adv. 10, eade4454 (2024).
  195. L. Zhu, Y.-H. Lien, A. Hinton, A. Niggebaum, C. Rammeloo, K. Bongs, and M. Holynski, Application of optical single-sideband laser in Raman atom interferometry, Opt. Express 26, 6542 (2018).
  196. C. Rammeloo, L. Zhu, Y.-H. Lien, K. Bongs, and M. Holynski, Performance of an optical single-sideband laser system for atom interferometry, J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 37, 1485 (2020).
  197. O. Carraz, R. Charrière, M. Cadoret, N. Zahzam, Y. Bidel, and A. Bresson, Phase shift in an atom interferometer induced by the additional laser lines of a Raman laser generated by modulation, Phys. Rev. A 86, 033605 (2012).
  198. S. Templier, J. Hauden, P. Cheiney, F. Napolitano, H. Porte, P. Bouyer, B. Barrett, and B. Battelier, Carrier-suppressed multiple-single-sideband laser source for atom cooling and interferometry, Phys. Rev. Appl. 16, 044018 (2021).
  199. G. M. Tino, L. Cacciapuoti, S. Capozziello, G. Lambiase, and F. Sorrentino, Precision gravity tests and the Einstein equivalence principle, Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys. 112, 103772 (2020).
  200. I. Perrin, J. Bernard, Y. Bidel, A. Bonnin, N. Zahzam, C. Blanchard, A. Bresson, and M. Cadoret, Zero-velocity atom interferometry using a retroreflected frequency-chirped laser, Phys. Rev. A 100, 053618 (2019).
  201. J. Bernard, Y. Bidel, M. Cadoret, C. Salducci, N. Zahzam, S. Schwartz, A. Bonnin, C. Blanchard, and A. Bresson, Atom interferometry using σ+−σ− Raman transitions between |F=1,mF=∓1〉 and |F=2,mF=±1〉, Phys. Rev. A 105, 033318 (2022).
  202. K. Kotru, J. M. Brown, D. L. Butts, J. M. Kinast, and R. E. Stoner, Robust Ramsey sequences with Raman adiabatic rapid passage, Phys. Rev. A 90, 053611 (2014).
  203. N. Mielec, M. Altorio, R. Sapam, D. Horville, D. Holleville, L. A. Sidorenkov, A. Landragin, and R. Geiger, Atom interferometry with top-hat laser beams, Appl. Phys. Lett. 113, 161108 (2018).
  204. S. Templier, P. Cheiney, Q. D'armagnac De Castanet, B. Gouraud, H. Porte, F. Napolitano, P. Bouyer, B. Battelier, and B. Barrett, Tracking the vector acceleration with a hybrid quantum accelerometer triad, Sci. Adv. 8, eadd3854 (2022).
  205. M. J. Holland and K. Burnett, Interferometric detection of optical phase shifts at the Heisenberg limit, Phys. Rev. Lett. 71, 1355 (1993).
  206. V. Giovannetti, S. Lloyd, and L. MacCone, Quantum metrology, Phys. Rev. Lett. 96, 010401 (2006).
  207. D. J. Wineland, J. J. Bollinger, W. M. Itano, and D. J. Heinzen, Squeezed atomic states and projection noise in spectroscopy, Phys. Rev. A 50, 67 (1994).
  208. S. S. Szigeti, O. Hosten, and S. A. Haine, Improving cold-atom sensors with quantum entanglement: Prospects and challenges, Appl. Phys. Lett. 118, 14 (2021).
  209. M. Schulte, C. Lisdat, P. O. Schmidt, U. Sterr, and K. Hammerer, Prospects and challenges for squeezing-enhanced optical atomic clocks, Nat. Commun. 11, 5955 (2020).
  210. J. Huang, M. Zhuang, and C. Lee, Entanglement-enhanced quantum metrology: From standard quantum limit to Heisenberg limit, Appl. Phys. Rev. 11, 031302 (2024).
  211. D. Ganapathy et al., Broadband quantum enhancement of the LIGO detectors with frequency-dependent squeezing, Phys. Rev. X 13, 041021 (2023).
  212. K. M. Backes, D. A. Palken, S. A. Kenany, B. M. Brubaker, S. B. Cahn, A. Droster, G. C. Hilton, S. Ghosh, H. Jackson, S. K. Lamoreaux, A. F. Leder, K. W. Lehnert, S. M. Lewis, M. Malnou, R. H. Maruyama, N. M. Rapidis, M. Simanovskaia, S. Singh, D. H. Speller, I. Urdinaran et al., A quantum enhanced search for dark matter axions, Nature (London) 590, 238 (2021).
  213. J. G. Bohnet, K. C. Cox, M. A. Norcia, J. M. Weiner, Z. Chen, and J. K. Thompson, Reduced spin measurement back-action for a phase sensitivity ten times beyond the standard quantum limit, Nat. Photon. 8, 731 (2014).
  214. O. Hosten, N. J. Engelsen, R. Krishnakumar, and M. A. Kasevich, Measurement noise 100 times lower than the quantum-projection limit using entangled atoms, Nature (London) 529, 505 (2016).
  215. E. Pedrozo-Peñafiel, S. Colombo, C. Shu, A. F. Adiyatullin, Z. Li, E. Mendez, B. Braverman, A. Kawasaki, D. Akamatsu, Y. Xiao, and V. Vuletić, Entanglement on an optical atomic-clock transition, Nature (London) 588, 414 (2020).
  216. W. J. Eckner, N. Darkwah Oppong, A. Cao, A. W. Young, W. R. Milner, J. M. Robinson, J. Ye, and A. M. Kaufman, Realizing spin squeezing with Rydberg interactions in an optical clock, Nature (London) 621, 734 (2023).
  217. J. M. Robinson, M. Miklos, Y. M. Tso, C. J. Kennedy, T. Bothwell, D. Kedar, J. K. Thompson, and J. Ye, Direct comparison of two spin-squeezed optical clock ensembles at the 10−17 level, Nat. Phys. 20, 208 (2024).
  218. C. Troullinou, V. G. Lucivero, and M. W. Mitchell, Quantum-enhanced magnetometry at optimal number density, Phys. Rev. Lett. 131, 133602 (2023).
  219. W. Zheng, H. Wang, R. Schmieg, A. Oesterle, and E. S. Polzik, Entanglement-enhanced magnetic induction tomography, Phys. Rev. Lett. 130, 203602 (2023).
  220. F. Anders, A. Idel, P. Feldmann, D. Bondarenko, S. Loriani, K. Lange, J. Peise, M. Gersemann, B. Meyer-Hoppe, S. Abend, N. Gaaloul, C. Schubert, D. Schlippert, L. Santos, E. Rasel, and C. Klempt, Momentum entanglement for atom interferometry, Phys. Rev. Lett. 127, 140402 (2021).
  221. W. C. Griffith, M. D. Swallows, T. H. Loftus, M. V. Romalis, B. R. Heckel, and E. N. Fortson, Improved limit on the permanent electric dipole moment of Hg199, Phys. Rev. Lett. 102, 101601 (2009).
  222. B. Graner, Y. Chen, E. G. Lindahl, and B. R. Heckel, Reduced limit on the permanent electric dipole moment of Hg199, Phys. Rev. Lett. 116, 161601 (2016).
  223. J. J. Hudson, D. M. Kara, I. J. Smallman, B. E. Sauer, M. R. Tarbutt, and E. A. Hinds, Improved measurement of the shape of the electron, Nature (London) 473, 493 (2011).
  224. V. Andreev, D. G. Ang, D. DeMille, J. M. Doyle, G. Gabrielse, J. Haefner, N. R. Hutzler, Z. Lasner, C. Meisenhelder, B. R. O'Leary, C. D. Panda, A. D. West, E. P. West, and X. Wu (ACME Collaboration), Improved limit on the electric dipole moment of the electron, Nature (London) 562, 355 (2018).
  225. W. B. Cairncross, D. N. Gresh, M. Grau, K. C. Cossel, T. S. Roussy, Y. Ni, Y. Zhou, J. Ye, and E. A. Cornell, Precision measurement of the electron's electric dipole moment using trapped molecular ions, Phys. Rev. Lett. 119, 153001 (2017).
  226. ACMEIII Collaboration: https://cfp.physics.northwestern.edu/gabrielse-group/acme-electron-edm.html.
  227. K. Wei, T. Zhao, X. Fang, Z. Xu, C. Liu, Q. Cao, A. Wickenbrock, Y. Hu, W. Ji, J. Fang, and D. Budker, Ultrasensitive atomic comagnetometer with enhanced nuclear spin coherence, Phys. Rev. Lett. 130, 063201 (2023).
  228. F. A. Narducci, A. T. Black, and J. H. Burke, Advances toward fieldable atom interferometers, Adv. Phys. 7, 1946426 (2022).
  229. R. R. Allen, F. Machado, I. L. Chuang, H.-Y. Huang, and S. Choi, Quantum computing enhanced sensing, arXiv:2501.07625.
  230. A. P. Burgers, S. Ma, S. Saskin, J. Wilson, M. A. Alarcón, C. H. Greene, and J. D. Thompson, Controlling Rydberg excitations using ion-core transitions in alkaline-earth atom-tweezer arrays, PRX Quantum 3, 020326 (2022).
  231. S. J. Li, C. M. Holland, Y. Lu, and L. W. Cheuk, Blue-detuned magneto-optical trap of CaF molecules, Phys. Rev. Lett. 132, 233402 (2024).
  232. J. Kitching, S. Knappe, and E. A. Donley, Atomic sensors–a review, IEEE Sensors J. 11, 1749 (2011).
  233. H. Yu, X. Zhang, J. Zhang, Z. Wu, L. Jiao, K. Li, and W. Zheng, Key technologies in developing chip-scale hot atomic devices for precision quantum metrology, Micromachines 15, 1095 (2024).
  234. G. D. Metcalfe, B. Tabakov, T. Nguyen, J. Lu, and A. Sayir, Basic research perspective on quantum information science for the aerospace community, AIAA J. 61, 5191 (2023).
  235. E. Oh, M. D. Gregoire, A. T. Black, K. Jeramy Hughes, P. D. Kunz, M. Larsen, J. Lautier-Gaud, J. Lee, P. D. D. Schwindt, S. L. Mouradian, F. A. Narducci, and C. A. Sackett, Perspective on quantum sensors from basic research to commercial applications, AIAA J. 62, 4029 (2024).
  236. K. Bongs, S. Bennett, and A. Lohmann, Quantum sensors will start a revolution — if we deploy them right, Nature (London) 617, 672 (2023).
  237. Applications of Quantum Technologies, Tech. Rep. (Defense Science Board, 2019).
  238. A. D. Ludlow, M. M. Boyd, J. Ye, E. Peik, and P. O. Schmidt, Optical atomic clocks, Rev. Mod. Phys. 87, 637 (2015).
  239. A. Godone, F. Levi, C. E. Calosso, and S. Micalizio, High-performing vapor-cell frequency standards, Riv. Nuovo Cimento 38, 133 (2015).
  240. S. A. Diddams, K. Vahala, and T. Udem, Optical frequency combs: Coherently uniting the electromagnetic spectrum, Science 369, eaay3676 (2020).
  241. B. L. Marlow and D. R. Scherer, A review of commercial and emerging atomic frequency standards, IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Contr. 68, 2007 (2021).
  242. J. Vanier and C. Tomescu, The Quantum Physics of Atomic Frequency Standards, 1st ed. (CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2016).
  243. 1193-2022 - IEEE Guide for Measurement of Environmental Sensitivities of Standard Frequency Generators (IEEE, New York, 2023).
  244. M. Gellesch, J. Jones, R. Barron, A. Singh, Q. Sun, K. Bongs, and Y. Singh, Transportable optical atomic clocks for use in out-of-the-lab environments, Adv. Opt. Technol. 9, 313 (2020).
  245. T. E. Mehlstäubler, G. Grosche, C. Lisdat, P. O. Schmidt, and H. Denker, Atomic clocks for geodesy, Rep. Prog. Phys. 81, 064401 (2018).
  246. D. Budker and M. Romalis, Optical magnetometry, Nat. Phys. 3, 227 (2007).
  247. A. Fabricant, I. Novikova, and G. Bison, How to build a magnetometer with thermal atomic vapor: A tutorial, New J. Phys. 25, 025001 (2023).
  248. X. Bai, K. Wen, D. Peng, S. Liu, and L. Luo, Atomic magnetometers and their application in industry, Front. Phys. 11, 1212368 (2023).
  249. K. M. C. Fu, G. Z. Iwata, A. Wickenbrock, and D. Budker, Sensitive magnetometry in challenging environments, AVS Quantum Sci. 2, 044702 (2020).
  250. M. W. Mitchell and S. Palacios Alvarez, Colloquium: Quantum limits to the energy resolution of magnetic field sensors, Rev. Mod. Phys. 92, 021001 (2020).
  251. B. Liu, L. Zhang, Z. Liu, Z. Deng, D. Ding, B. Shi, and G. Guo, Electric field measurement and application based on Rydberg atoms, Electromagn. Sci. 1, 0020151 (2023).
  252. C. L. Holloway, M. T. Simons, A. B. Artusio-Glimpse, J. A. Gordon, G. Marconi, Y. J. Guo, and R. W. Ziolkowski, Overview of Rydberg atom-based sensors/receivers for the measurement of electric fields, power, voltage, and modulated signals, in Antenna and Array Technologies for Future Wireless Ecosystems, 1st ed., edited by Y. J. Guo and R. W. Ziolkowski (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2022), Chap. 11.
  253. A. Artusio-Glimpse, M. T. Simons, N. Prajapati, and C. L. Holloway, Modern RF measurements with hot atoms: A technology review of Rydberg atom-based radio frequency field sensors, IEEE Microwave Mag. 23, 44 (2022).
  254. G. Santamaria-Botello, S. Verploegh, E. Bottomley, and Z. Popovic, Comparison of noise temperature of Rydberg-atom and electronic microwave receivers, arXiv:2209.00908.
  255. P. B. Weichman, Doppler sensitivity and resonant tuning of Rydberg atom-based antennas, J. Phys. B: At. Mol. Opt. Phys. 57, 165501 (2024).
  256. C. T. Fancher, D. R. Scherer, M. C. John, and B. L. Marlow, Rydberg atom electric field sensors for communications and sensing, IEEE Trans. Quantum Eng. 2, 3501313 (2021).
  257. N. Schlossberger, N. Prajapati, S. Berweger, A. P. Rotunno, A. B. Artusio-Glimpse, M. T. Simons, A. A. Sheikh, E. B. Norrgard, S. P. Eckel, and C. L. Holloway, Rydberg states of alkali atoms in atomic vapour as Si-traceable field probes and communications receivers, Nat. Rev. Phys. 6, 606 (2024).
  258. H.-T. Tu, K.-Y. Liao, H.-L. Wang, Y.-F. Zhu, S.-Y. Qiu, H. Jiang, W. Huang, W. Bian, H. Yan, and S.-L. Zhu, Approaching the standard quantum limit of a Rydberg-atom microwave electrometer, Sci. Adv 10, eads0683 (2024).
  259. F. B. Dunning, T. C. Killian, S. Yoshida, and J. Burgdörfer, Recent advances in Rydberg physics using alkaline-earth atoms, J. Phys. B: At. Mol. Opt. Phys. 49, 112003 (2016).
  260. K. Dixon, K. Nickerson, D. W. Booth, and J. P. Shaffer, Rydberg-atom-based electrometry using a self-heterodyne frequency-comb readout and preparation scheme, Phys. Rev. Appl. 19, 034078 (2023).
  261. M. V. Romalis, J. Wiedemann, S. Zhang, and N. Dural, Vapor cell Rydberg atom electrometry with time-separated fields, arXiv:2406.05106.
  262. M. de Angelis, A. Bertoldi, L. Cacciapuoti, A. Giorgini, G. Lamporesi, M. Prevedelli, G. Saccorotti, F. Sorrentino, and G. M. Tino, Precision gravimetry with atomic sensors, Meas. Sci. Technol. 20, 022001 (2009).
  263. A. D. Cronin, J. Schmiedmayer, and D. E. Pritchard, Optics and interferometry with atoms and molecules, Rev. Mod. Phys. 81, 1051 (2009).
  264. P. Storey and C. Cohen-Tannoudji, The Feynman path integral approach to atomic interferometry. A tutorial, J. Phys. II 4, 1999 (1994).
  265. R. Geiger, A. Landragin, S. Merlet, and F. Pereira Dos Santos, High-accuracy inertial measurements with cold-atom sensors, AVS Quantum Sci. 2, 024702 (2020).
  266. C. L. Garrido Alzar, Compact chip-scale guided cold atom gyrometers for inertial navigation: Enabling technologies and design study, AVS Quantum Sci. 1, 014702 (2019).
  267. T. G. Walker and M. S. Larsen, Spin-exchange-pumped NMR gyros, Adv. At. Mol. Opt. Phys. 65, 373 (2016).
  268. T. W. Kornack, R. K. Ghosh, and M. V. Romalis, Nuclear spin gyroscope based on an atomic comagnetometer, Phys. Rev. Lett. 95, 230801 (2005).
  269. S. Bogdanov, M. Y. Shalaginov, A. Boltasseva, and V. M. Shalaev, Material platforms for integrated quantum photonics, Opt. Mater. Express 7, 111 (2017).
  270. G. Moody, V. J. Sorger, D. J. Blumenthal, P. W. Juodawlkis, W. Loh, C. Sorace-Agaskar, A. E. Jones, K. C. Balram, J. C. Matthews, A. Laing, M. Davanco, L. Chang, J. E. Bowers, N. Quack, C. Galland, I. Aharonovich, M. A. Wolff, C. Schuck, N. Sinclair, M. Lončar et al., 2022 Roadmap on integrated quantum photonics, J. Phys. Photonics 4, 012501 (2022).
  271. T. Giordani, F. Hoch, G. Carvacho, N. Spagnolo, and F. Sciarrino, Integrated photonics in quantum technologies, Riv. Nuovo Cim. 46, 71 (2023).
  272. D. J. Blumenthal, A. Isichenko, and N. Chauhan, Enabling photonic integrated 3D magneto-optical traps for quantum sciences and applications, Opt. Quantum 2, 444 (2024).
  273. J. A. Rushton, M. Aldous, and M. D. Himsworth, Contributed review: The feasibility of a fully miniaturized magneto-optical trap for portable ultracold quantum technology, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 85, 121501 (2014).
  274. P. Knapkiewicz, Technological assessment of MEMS alkali vapor cells for atomic references, Micromachines 10, 25 (2019).
  275. C. Gorecki, N. Passilly, V. Maurice, S. Bargiel, R. Chutani, R. Boudot, R. Vicarini, and S. Galliou, Advanced microfabrication technologies for miniature caesium vapor cells for atomic clocks, in Optical, Opto-Atomic, and Entanglement-Enhanced Precision Metrology, edited by S. M. Shahriar and J. Scheuer (SPIE, 2019), Vol. 10934, pp. 258–264.
  276. G. Pan, M. Xun, X. Zhou, Y. Sun, Y. Dong, and D. Wu, Harnessing the capabilities of VCSELs: Unlocking the potential for advanced integrated photonic devices and systems, Light Sci. Appl. 13, 229 (2024).
  277. I. H. Deutsch, Harnessing the power of the second quantum revolution, PRX Quantum 1, 020101 (2020).
  278. J. Ye and P. Zoller, Essay: Quantum sensing with atomic, molecular, and optical platforms for fundamental physics, Phys. Rev. Lett. 132, 190001 (2024).
  279. M. W. Mitchell, Number-unconstrained quantum sensing, Quantum Sci. Technol. 2, 044005 (2017).
  280. S. Zhou, M. Zhang, J. Preskill, and L. Jiang, Achieving the Heisenberg limit in quantum metrology using quantum error correction, Nat. Commun. 9, 78 (2018).
  281. D. Braun, G. Adesso, F. Benatti, R. Floreanini, U. Marzolino, M. W. Mitchell, and S. Pirandola, Quantum-enhanced measurements without entanglement, Rev. Mod. Phys. 90, 035006 (2018).
  282. R. Zulkharnay and P. W. May, Applications of diamond films: A review, Funct. Diamond 4, 2410160 (2024).
  283. S. Castelletto, C. T. K. Lew, W.-X. Lin, and J.-S. Xu, Quantum systems in silicon carbide for sensing applications, Rep. Prog. Phys. 87, 014501 (2024).
  284. C. Chen, B. Jiang, and X. Hu, Research progress on silicon vacancy color centers in diamond, Funct. Diamond 4, 2332346 (2024).
  285. F. P. García de Arquer, D. V. Talapin, V. I. Klimov, Y. Arakawa, M. Bayer, and E. H. Sargent, Semiconductor quantum dots: Technological progress and future challenges, Science 373, eaaz8541 (2021).
  286. J. F. Barry, M. J. Turner, J. M. Schloss, D. R. Glenn, Y. Song, M. D. Lukin, H. Park, and R. L. Walsworth, Optical magnetic detection of single-neuron action potentials using quantum defects in diamond, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 113, 14133 (2016).
  287. B. P. Weiss, R. R. Fu, J. F. Einsle, D. R. Glenn, P. Kehayias, E. A. Bell, J. Gelb, J. F. Araujo, E. A. Lima, C. S. Borlina, P. Boehnke, D. N. Johnstone, T. M. Harrison, R. J. Harrison, and R. L. Walsworth, Secondary magnetic inclusions in detrital zircons from the Jack Hills, Western Australia, and implications for the origin of the geodynamo, Geology 46, 427 (2018).
  288. M. J. Turner, N. Langellier, R. Bainbridge, D. Walters, S. Meesala, T. M. Babinec, P. Kehayias, A. Yacoby, E. Hu, M. Lončar, R. L. Walsworth, and E. V. Levine, Magnetic field fingerprinting of integrated-circuit activity with a quantum diamond microscope, Phys. Rev. Appl. 14, 014097 (2020).
  289. S. Hsieh, P. Bhattacharyya, C. Zu, T. Mittiga, T. J. Smart, F. Machado, B. Kobrin, T. O. Höhn, N. Z. Rui, M. Kamrani, S. Chatterjee, S. Choi, M. Zaletel, V. V. Struzhkin, J. E. Moore, V. I. Levitas, R. Jeanloz, and N. Y. Yao, Imaging stress and magnetism at high pressures using a nanoscale quantum sensor, Science 366, 1349 (2019).
  290. M. Lesik, T. Plisson, L. Toraille, J. Renaud, F. Occelli, M. Schmidt, O. Salord, A. Delobbe, T. Debuisschert, L. Rondin, P. Loubeyre, and J.-F. Roch, Magnetic measurements on micrometer-sized samples under high pressure using designed NV centers, Science 366, 1359 (2019).
  291. K. Y. Yip, K. O. Ho, K. Y. Yu, Y. Chen, W. Zhang, S. Kasahara, Y. Mizukami, T. Shibauchi, Y. Matsuda, S. K. Goh, and S. Yang, Measuring magnetic field texture in correlated electron systems under extreme conditions, Science 366, 1355 (2019).
  292. K. Senkalla, G. Genov, M. H. Metsch, P. Siyushev, and F. Jelezko, Germanium vacancy in diamond quantum memory exceeding 20 ms, Phys. Rev. Lett. 132, 026901 (2024).
  293. S. Khan, M. P. Kumar, V. Bharti, and V. Natarajan, Coherent population trapping (CPT) versus electromagnetically induced transparency (EIT), Eur. Phys. J. D 71, 38 (2017).
  294. G. W. Biedermann, H. J. McGuinness, A. V. Rakholia, Y.-Y. Jau, D. R. Wheeler, J. D. Sterk, and G. R. Burns, Atom interferometry in a warm vapor, Phys. Rev. Lett. 118, 163601 (2017).
  295. R. Wyllie, The development of a multichannel atomic magnetometer array for fetal magnetocardiography, Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2012.

Outline

Information

Phys. Rev. A 112, 040102– Published 28 October, 2025
  • Received 12 March 2025
Crossmark - Check for updates button
Creative Commons Logo

Published by the American Physical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article's title, journal citation, and DOI.

Published by the American Physical Society

Sign In to Your Journals Account

Filter

Filter

Article Lookup

Enter a citation