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    Measurement-incompatibility constraints for maximal randomness

    Tianqi Zheng1, Yi Li1,2, Yu Xiang3, and Qiongyi He1,4,5,*

    • *Contact author: qiongyihe@pku.edu.cn

    Phys. Rev. A 113, 012441 – Published 28 January, 2026

    DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/p5qq-2spt

    Abstract

    Certifying maximal quantum randomness without assumptions about system dimension remains a pivotal challenge for secure communication and foundational studies. Here, we introduce a generalized framework to directly certify maximal randomness from observed probability distributions across systems with arbitrary user numbers, without relying on the Bell-inequality violations. By analyzing probability distributions directly, we identify a class of quantum states and projective measurements that achieve maximal randomness in bipartite and tripartite scenarios, ensuring practical feasibility. Further analysis reveals a counterintuitive trade-off governing measurement incompatibility among users: sufficient incompatibility for one user permits arbitrarily small incompatibility for others, defying conventional symmetry assumptions in the Bell test. This asymmetry provides a pathway to optimize device-independent protocols by strategically distributing quantum resources. Our results establish a versatile and experimentally accessible route to scalable randomness certification, with implications for quantum cryptography and the physics of nonlocal correlations.

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